IT related English

LANGUAGE BASICS

Английский язык
с уклоном на ИКТ

(Основы языка)

Учебное пособие по изучению английского языка

для преподавателей колледжей

Ташкент 2006

Данное учебное пособие разработано в рамках узбекско-немецкого проекта «Содействие профессиональному образованию» и предназначено для преподавателей колледжей по курсу «Английский язык, ориентированный на Информационные технологии». Пособие функционально содержит два блока: в первом блоке уроков, состоящем из 10 разделов,  приведены материалы для обучения, представляющие курс  грамматики английского языка; он позволяет повторить и закрепить навыки по английской грамматике, с наглядными примерами и объяснениями. Во втором блоке, состоящем из 10 разделов, представлен непосредственный практикум занятий по английскому языку, даны основы  контроля и развития грамматических, лексических навыков; для работы подобраны тексты из оригинальной литературы по информационным технологиям, которые по тематике дополняют имеющиеся по этому направлению тексы.  Работа над текстами рассчитана как на коллективно-групповой, так и на индивидуальный метод работы, в режиме взаимокорнтроля: переводы, грамматические упражнения,  тексты и вопросы к ним.

Содержание
1	Часть 1. Основы грамматики английского языка
	Раздел 1. Использование настоящего времени
	Unit 1. am/ is/ are (спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого настоящего времени)
	Unit 2. am/ is/ are (questions) (спряжение глагола "to be" в вопросительных предложениях)
	Unit 3. I am doing (present continuous) (настоящее продолженное время)
	Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions) (вопросительные предложения в настоящем продолженном времени)
	Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present Simple) (спряжение глаголов в простом настоящем времени)
	Unit 6. I don’t … (Present Simple negative) (отрицательные формы глаголов в простом настоящем времени)
	Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions) (вопросительные предложения в простом настоящем времени)
	Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple) (смысловое различие предложений с глаголами в простом и продолженном настоящем времени)
	Раздел 2. Использование прошедшего времени
	Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple) (простое прошедшее время)
	Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions) (отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)
	Unit 11. was/ were (спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого прошедшего времени)
	Unit 12. I was doing … (Past Continuous) (прошедшее продолженное время)
	Unit 13. I was doing … (Past Continuous) and I did … (Past Simple) (смысловое различие предложений в простом и продолженном прошедшем времени)
	Unit 14. have/ has (got) (использование have/has и have/has got)
	Раздел 3. Использование настоящего совершенного времени
	Unit 15. I have done … (Present Perfect 1) (настоящее совершенное время 1)
	Unit 16. Have you ever … (Present Perfect 2) (настоящее совершенное время 2)
	Unit 17. How long have you … (Present Perfect 3) (настоящее совершенное время 3)
	Unit 18. for since ago (предлоги времени)
	Unit 19. I have done … (Present Perfect) and I did … (Past Simple) (смысловые различия между предложениями в настоящем совершенном и простом прошедшем времени)
	Раздел 4. Использование страдательного залога
	Unit 20. it is done/ it was done (passive) (страдательный залог)
	Раздел 5. Использование будущего времени
	Unit 21. What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future) (настоящее в будущем)
	Unit 22. I’m going to …
	Unit 23. will/ shall (1)
	Unit 24. will/ shall (2)
	Раздел 6. Модальные глаголы
	Unit 25. can and could
	Unit 26. may and might
	Unit 27. must
	Unit 28. should
	Unit 29. have to
	Unit 30. Would you like …?
	Раздел 7. Смысловые конструкции 1. Правильные и неправильные глаголы.
	Unit 31. there is/ there are
	Unit 32. there was/ were/ has been/ will be
	Unit 33. it …
	Unit 34. go/ going work/ working/ play/ playing etc.
	Unit 35. be/ have/ do in present and past tenses (глаголы be, have, do в настоящих и прошедших временах)
	Unit 36. Regular and irregular verbs (правильные и неправильные глаголы)
	Unit 37. I am / I don’t etc.
	Unit 38. Have you …? / Are you …? / Don’t you …? etc.
	Unit 39. too / either so am I/ neither do I etc. Unit 40. Negatives: isn’t/ haven’t/ don’t etc. (отрицательные предложения с вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)
	Раздел 8. Образование вопросительных предложений
	Unit 41. Questions (1) Is it …? Have you …? Do they …? etc. (вопросительные предложения со вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)
	Unit 42. Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see? (вопросительные предложения (2)
	Unit 43. Questions (3) Who is she talking to? What is it like? (вопросительные предложения (3)
	Unit 44. What …? Which …? How …?
	Unit 45. How long does it take?
	Unit 46. Can you tell me where …? Do you know what …? etc.
	Раздел 9. Смысловые конструкции 2.
	Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)
	Unit 48. I want you to …/ I told you to …
	Unit 49. He said that …/ He told me that …
	Unit 50. I went to the shop to buy …
	Unit 51. get
	Unit 52. go
	Раздел 10. Местоимения
	Unit 53. I/me, he/ him, they/ them etc.
	Unit 54. my/his/their etc.
	Unit 55. Whose is this? It’s mine.
	Unit 56. I/me/my/mine
	Unit 57. myself/yourself/himself etc.
	Unit 58. -’s (Ann’s camera/my brother’s car etc.)
	Раздел 11. Употребление артиклей и предлогов с именами существительными
	Unit 59. Артиклиa/an (неопределенный артикль)
	Часть 2. Практикум по закреплению навыков.
	Раздел 1. Работа с текстами
	Unit 1. ACCESS METHODS
	Unit 2. VIRTUAL MEMORY
	Unit 3. ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
	Unit 4. AIKEN, HOWARD
	Unit 5. ALGOL
	Unit 6. ALGORITHMICS
	Unit 7. Analog Computer: The End of an Era
	Unit 8. APPLE COMPUTER, INC. Apple's Beginnings
	Unit 9. APPLICATIONS PROGRAMMING

UNIT 1. The World of Telecommunication……………………….......................   4

Part I. Text and exercises ……………………………….     4

Part II. Dialogues…………………………………………      10

UNIT 2. Modern Computer………………....……………     14

Part I. Text and exercises …………………….………….    14

Lesson 1………………….…………………………………       14

Lesson 2………………………….…………………………       22

Part II. Dialogues……………………………………………   29

Part III. Humor Page…………………………….………..    39

UNIT 3. The  Internet and Modern Life….…………….    44

Part I. Text and exercises ………………………….…….    44

Lesson 1…………………………….………………………       44

Lesson 2……………………………….……………………       52

Part II. Humor Page…………………………...…………..    60

Часть 1. Основы грамматики английского языка.

Раздел 1. Использование настоящего времени

Unit 1. am/ is/ are
(спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого настоящего времени)

positive

I		am	(I'm)
he		is	(he's)
she			(she's)
it			(it's)
we		are	(we're)
you			(you're)
they			(they're)

negative

I		am not	(I'm not)
he		is not	(he's not or he isn't)
she			(she's not or she isn't)
it			(it's not or it isn't)
we		are not	(we're not or we aren't)
you			(you're not or you aren't)
they			(they're not or they aren't)

- Can you close the window, please? I'm cold.
- I'm 32 years old. My sister is 29.
- My brother is a policement. He's very tall.
- John is afraid of dogs.
- It's 10 o'clock. You're late again.
- Ann and I are very good friends.
- My shoes are very dirty. I must clean them.
- I'm tired but I'm not hungry.
- Tom isn't interested in politics.
- Jane isn't at home at the moment. She's at work.
- Those people aren't English. They're Australian.

That's = that is There's = there is Here's = here is
  - Thank you. That's very kind of you.
- Look! There's George.

See Unit 2. am/ is/ are (questions)

Unit 2. am/ is/ are (questions)
(спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого настоящего времени в вопросах)

See Unit 1. am/ is/ are

positive

I		am	(I'm)
he		is	(he's)
she			(she's)
it			(it's)
we		are	(we're)
you			(you're)
they			(they're)

question

Am		I
Is		he
		she
		it
Are		we
		you
		they

- Is your mother at home? No, she's out.
- Is it cold in your room? Yes, a little.
- Those shoes are nice. Are they new?
- Are books expensive in your country?

- How old is Joe? He's 24.
- What colour is your car? It's blue.
- Where are you from? Canada.
- How much are these postcards? They're 40 pence each.

what's = what is who's = who is how's = how is where's = where is

- What's the time?
- Where's Jill?
- Who's that man?
- How's your father?

short answer - positive

Yes,		I		am
		he
Yes,		she		is
		it
		we
Yes,		you		are
		they

short answer - negative

No,		I'm		not
		he's						he
No,		she's		not	or	No,		she		isn't
		it's						it
		we're						we
No,		you're		not	or	No,		you		aren't
		they're						they

- Are you tired? Yes, I am.
- Are you hungry? No, I'm not but I'm thirsty.
- Is he English? Yes, he is.
- Is Ann at work today? No, she isn't.
- Is this seat free? Yes, it is.
- Are these your shoes? Yes, they are.
- Am I late? No, you aren't.

Unit 3. I am doing (Present Continuous)
(настоящее продолженное время)

- She's eating. She isn't reading.
- It's raining. The sun isn't shining.
- They're running. They aren't walking.

The Present Continuous Tense is:

I		am	(not)	-ing	I'm working.
he		is	(not)	-ing	Tom is writing a letter.
she					She isn't eating.
it					The telephone is ringing.
we		are	(not)	-ing	We're having dinner.
you					You're not listening to me.
they					The children are doing their homework.

See Unit 1 for the short forms 'm/ 's/ 're/ isn't/ aren't

- Please be quiet. I'm working. (= I'm working now)
- Look! Joy is wearing her new hat. (= she's wearing it now)
- Don't go out now. It's raining.
- "Where are the children?" "They're playing in the garden."
- (on the telephone) We're having dinner now. Can you phone later?
- You can turn the television off. I'm not watching it.

come - coming, smoke - smoking, wtite - writing
run - running, sit - sitting, swim - swimming
lie - lying, die - dying

See Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)
See Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)
See Unit 21. What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the Future)

Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)
(вопросительные предложения в настоящем продолженном времени)

See Unit 3. I am doing (Present Continuous)

positive

I		am	-ing
he		is
she			-ing
it
we		are
you			-ing
they

question

Am		I	-ing?
Is		he
		she	-ing?
		it
Are		we
		you	-ing?
		they

- Are you feeling okay? Yes, I'm feeling fine.
- Is it raining? Yes, take an umbrella.
- Why are you wearing a coat? It's not cold today.
- What's Roy doing? He's cooking the dinner.
- What are the children doing? They're playing in the garden.
- Look! There's Jan. Where's she doing?

The word order in these questions is:
	is/are	+	subject	+	-ing
	Is		he		working today?
	Is		Mr.Smith		working today?
Where	are		they		going?
Where	are		those people		going? (not Where are going those people?)

positive

Yes,		I		am
		he
Yes,		she		is
		it
		we
Yes,		you		are
		they

negative

No,		I'm		not
		he's						he
No,		she's		not	or	No,		she		isn't
		it's						it
		we're						we
No,		you're		not	or	No,		you		aren't
		they're						they

- Are you listening to the radio? Yes, I am.
- Is Tom working today? Yes, he is.
- Is it raining? No, it isn't.
- Are your friends staying at a hotel? No, they aren't.

Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present Simple)
(спряжение глаголов в простом настоящем времени)

They have a lot of books. They read a lot.	He's eating an ice-cream. He likes ice-cream.

They read/ I like/ he likes etc. = The Present Simple

I/ we/ you/ they	do	read	like	work	play	watch
he/ she/ it	does	reads	likes	works	plays	watches

Remember:

he/ she/ it + -s	I live in London but my brother lives in Scotland
have → has	I have a lot of books but he hasn't any books.

-es after -s/ -ch/ -sh	pass → pases	watch → watches	finish → finishes
also:	do → does	go → goes
	study → studies	carry → carries

We use the Present Simple for things that are true in general, or for things that happen sometimes or all the time:

- I like big cities.
- The shops open at 9 o'clock and close at 5:30.
- He works very hard. He starts at 7:30 and finishes at 8 o'clock in the evening.
- The Earth goes round the Sun.
- We do a lot of different things in our free time.
- She's very clever. She speaks four languages.
- It costs a lot of money to stay at luxury hotels.

We use the Present Simple with always/ never/ often/ sometimes/ usually:

- He always gets up at 7 o'clock.
- I usually go to work by car but I sometimes walk.
- Jack eats very little. He never has breakfast in the morning.
- The weather here is not very good. It often rains.

See Unit 6. I don't … (Present Simple negative)
See Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)
See Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)
See Unit 88. Word order (2)

Unit 6. I don't … (Present Simple negative)
(Отрицательные формы глаголов в простом настоящем времени)

See Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present Simple)

The Present Simple negative is don't/ doesn't + verb

She doesn't smoke.

He doesn't work.

positive

i we you they	work play do like
he she it	works plays does likes

negative

i we you they	do not (don't)	work play do like
he she it	does not (doesn't)

- I drink coffee but I don't drink tea.
- Sue drinks tea but she doesn't drink coffee.
- You don't speak English very well.
- They don't watch television very often.
- Rice doesn't grow in the cold countries.
- We don't know many people in this town.

We use don't/ doesn't + infinitive (like/ do/ speak/ work etc.):

- I don't like washing the car. I don't do it very often.
- She speaks Spanish but she doesn't speak Italian. (not she doesn't speaks)

Remember:

I/ we/ you/ they	don't	I don't like football.
he/ she/ it	doesn't	He doesn't like football.

- I don't like Fred and Fred doesn't like me. (not Fred don't like)
- My car doesn't use much petrol. (not my car don't use)
- Sometimes he is late but it doesn't happen very often.

See Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)

Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)
(Вопросительные предложения в простом настоящем времени)

See Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present Simple)
See Unit 6. I don't … (Present Simple negative)

We use do/does in Present Simple questions:

positive

i we you they	work play do like
he she it	works plays does like s

question

do	I we you they	work? play? do? like?
does	he she it

The word order in these questions is:
	do/does	+ subject	+	infinitive
	Do	you		work	on Saturdays?
Where	do	your parents		live?
	Do	they		like	music?
How often	do	you		wash	your hair?
What	do	you	usually	do	at weekends?
	Does	Chris	often	play	tennis?
How much	does	it		cost	to fly to Rome?
What	does	this word		mean?

What do you do? = What's your job?:

- What do you do? I work in a bank.

Remember:  

do	I/ we/ you/ they	-	Do they like music?
does	he/ she/ it	-	Does he like music?

short answers

Yes,		I/we/you/they	do
		he/she/it	does

No,		I/we/you/they	don't
		he/she/it	doesn't

- Do you smoke? No, I don't.
- Do they speak English? Yes, they do.
- Does he work hard? Yes, he does.
- Does your sister live in London? No, she doesn't.

See Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)

Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)
(Смысловое различие предложений с глаголами в простом и продолженном настоящем времени)

See Unit 3. I am doing (Present Continuous)
See Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)
See Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present Simple)
See Unit 6. I don't … (Present Simple negative)
See Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)

Jim is watching television. He is not playing the guitar. But Jim has a guitar. He often plays it and he plays very well. Jim plays the guitar but he is not playing the guitar now.

Is he playing the guitar? No, he isn't. (Present Continuous)
Does he play the guitar? Yes, he does. (Present Simple)

Present Continuous (I am doing) - now, at the time of speaking:



- Please be quiet. I am working.
- Tom is having a shower at the moment.
- Take an umbella. It's raining.
- You can turn off the television. I'm not watching it.
- Why are you under the table? What are you doing?

Present Simple (I do) - in general, all the time or sometimes:


- I work every day from 9 o'clock until 5.00.
- Tom has a shower every morning.
- It rains a lot in winter.
- I don't watch television very often.
- What do you ususally do at the weekend?

Do not use these verbs in the present continuous (I am -ing):
want like love hate need prefer depend know mean understand believe remember forget

Use the Present Simple only (I want/do you like? etc.):
- I'm tired. I want to go home. (not I'm wanting)
- Do you know that girl? Yes, but I forget her name.
- I don't understand. What do you mean?

Раздел 2. Использование прошедшего времени

Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
(простое прошедшее время)

I watch television every evening. (Present Simple)
I watched television yesterday evening. (Past Simple)

watched is the Past Simple:

I/ we/ you/ they/ he/ she/ it

watched

The Past Simple is often -ed. For example:

word - worked	clean - cleaned	start - started
stay - stayed	live - lived	dance - danced

These verbs are regular verbs.

- I clean my teeth every morning. This morning I cleaned my teeth.
- Terry worked in a bank from 1981 to 1986.
- Yesterday it rained all morning. It stopped at launchtime.
- We enjoyed the party last night. We danced a lot and talked to a lot of people.
- The party finished at midnight.

study - studied	marry - married
stop - stopped	plan - planned

Some verbs are irregular (not regular). The Past Simple is not -ed. Here are some important irregular verbs

begin break bring build buy catch come do drink eat

began broke brought built bought caught came did drank ate

fall find fly forget get give go have hear know

fell found flew forgot got gave went had heard knew

leave lose make meet pay put read ring say see

left lost made met paid put read (/red/) rang said saw

sell sit sleep speak stand take tell thing win write

sold sat slept spoke stood took told thought won wrote

- I usually get up early but this morning I got up at 9.30.
- We did a lot of housework yesterday.
- Caroline went to the cinema three times last week.
- Mr Todd came into the room, took off this coat and sad down.

See Unit 10. I didn't… Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)

Unit 10. I didn't … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)

See Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)

We use did in Past Simple negatives and questions:

infinitive

watch
clean
play
do
go
have
begin

positive

I we you they he she it

watched cleaned played did went had began

negative

I we you they he she it

did not (didn't)

watch clean play do go have begin

question

did

I we you they he she it

watch? clean? play? do? go? have? begin?

do/does (Present) - did (Past):

- I don't watch television very often.
- I didn't watch television yesterday.
- Does she often go out?
- Did she go out last night?

We use did/didn't + infinitive (watch/ clean/do etc.):

I watched he went

but but

I didn't watch did he go?

(not I didn't watched) (not did he went?)

- I played tennis yesterday but I didn't win.
- Don didn't have breakfast this morning. (not Don hadn't breakfast)
- They went to the cinema but they didn't enjoy the film.
- We didn't do much work yesterday.

Note the word order in questions with did:

What How Where

did Did did did did

+ subject Sue you the accident your parents

+ infinitive give do happen? go

you a birthday present? yesterday evening? for their holidays?

short answers

short answer - positive

Yes,		I/ we/ you/ they		did.
		he/ she/ it

short answer - negative

No,		I/ we/ you/ they		didn't.
		he/ she/ it

- Did you see Joe yesterday? No, I didn't.
- Did it rain on Sunday? Yes, it did.
- Did Helen come to the party? No, she didn't.
- Did your friends have a good holiday? Yes, they did.

Unit 11. was/ were
(спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого прошедшего времени)

Now Charlie is at work. At midnight last night he wasn't at work. He was in bed. He was asleep.

am/is (present) - was (past):

- I am tired. - Is she at home (now)? - The weather is nice today.

I was tired last night. Was she at home yesterday morning? The weather was nice yesterday.

are (present) - were (past):

- You are late (now). - They aren't here (now)?

You were late yesterday. They weren't here last Sunday.

positive

I he she it	was
we you they	were

negative

I he she it	was not (wasn't)
we you they	were not (weren't)

question

was	I? he? she? it?
were	we? you? they?

- Last year she was 22, so she is 23 now.
- When I was a child, I was afraid of dogs.
- We were tired after the journey but we weren't hungry.
- The hotel was very comfortable and it wasn't expensive.
- Where were you at 3 o'clock yesterday afternoon?.
- Was the weather good when you were on holiday?
- Those shoes are nice. Were they expensive?
- Why was he angry yesterday?

short answers

short answer - positive

Yes,		I/ he/ she/ it	was
		we/ you/ they	were

short answer - negative

No,		I/ he/ she/ is	wasn't.
		we/ you/ they	weren't.

- Were you late? No, I wasn't.
- Was Ted at work yesterday? Yes, he was.
- Were they at the party? No, they weren't.

Unit 12. I was doing (Past Continuous)
(прошедшее продолженное время)

Now it is 6 o'clock. Sarah is at home. She is watching television. At 4 o'clock she wasn't at home. She was at the sports club. She was playing tennis. She wasn't watching television.

was/ were -ing (doing/ playing/ working etc.) is the Past Continuous tense:

positive

I he she it	was -ing
we you they	were -ing

negative

I he she it	was not (wasn't)	-ing
we you they	were not (weren't)	-ing

question

was	I he she it	-ing?
were	we you they	-ing?

- What were you doing at 11.30 yesterday? I was working.
- What did he say? I don't know. I wasn't listening.
- It was raining, so we didn't go out.
- In 1980 they were living in Canada.
- Today she's wearing a skirt, but yesterday she was wearing trousers.
- I woke up early yesterday. It was a beautiful morning. The sun was shining and the birds were singing.

am/ is/ are -ing (Present) - was/ were -ing (Past):

- I'm working (now). - It isn't raining (now). - What are you doing (now)?

I was working at 10.30 last night. It wasn't raining when we went out. What were you doing at 3 o'clock?

See Unit 13. I was doing (Past Continuous) and I did (Past Simple)

Unit 13. I was doing … (Past Continuous) and I did … (Past Simple)
(смысловое различие предложений в простом и продолженном прошедшем времени)

What happened? The phone rang. (Past Simple)
What was Jack doing when the phone rang?
He was reading a book. (Past Continuous)
What did he do when the phone rang?
He stopped reading and answered the phone. (Past Simple)

Jack began reading before the phone rang. So:
When the phone rang, he was reading.

- Jack was reading the newspaper when the phone rang.
but Jack read the newspaper yesterday.
- Were you watching television when I phoned you?
but Did you watch the film on television last night?
- I started work at 9.00 and finished at 4.30. At 2.30 I was working.
- When we went out, it was raining. (= it started raining before we went out)
- I saw Lucy and Tom this morning. They were standing at the bus-stop.
- Joy fell asleep while she was reading.

Unit 14. have/ has (got)
(использование have/has и have/has got)

You can say have or have got, has or has got:

I		have	=	I		have got	(I've got)
we				we			(we've got)
you				you			(you've got)
they				they			(they've got)
he		has	=	I		has got	(he's got)
she				she			(she's got)
it				it			(it's got)

She's got a headache.
or She has a headache.

- I've got blue eyes. (or I have got blue eyes.)
- Tim has got two sisters. (or Tim has two sisters.)
- They like animals. They've got a horse, three dogs and six cats.
- This car has got four doors.
- I don't feel very well. I've got a headache.

negative

I we you they	have not (haven't)	got
he she it	has not (hasn't)

question

have	I we you they	got?
has	he she it

short answers

Yes, No,	I we you they	have. haven't.
Yes, No,	he she it	has. hasn't.

- I've got a motor-bike but I have't got a car.
- Mr and Mrs Harrison haven't got any children.
- It's a nice house but it hasn't got a garden.
- "Have you got a camera?" "Yes, I have"
- "What have you got in your bag?" "Nothing. It's empty."
- "Has Ann got a car?" "Yes, she has".
- What kind of car has she got?

In negatives and questions you can also use do/does + have:

- They don't have any children. (= They haven't got any children.)
- It's a nice house but it doesn't have a garden. (= it hasn't got a garden)
- Does Ann got a car? (= Has Ann got a car?)
- How much money do you have? (= How much money have you got?)

The past is had. In negatives and questions we use did + have

See Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
See Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)

Раздел 3. Использование настоящего совершенного времени

Unit 15. I have done (Present Perfect I)
(настоящее совершенное время 1)

His shoes are dirty.	He is cleaning his shoes.	He has cleaned his shoes. (= his shoes are clean now)
They are at home.	They are going out.	They have gone out. (= his are not at home now)

has cleaned/ have gone etc. is the Present Perfect (have/ has + Past Participle*):

I		have ('ve) have not (haven't)	cleaned
we			finished
you			done
they			been
he		has ('s) has not (hasn't)	bought
she			taken
it			begun

have		I	cleaned?
		we	finished?
		you	done?
		they	been?
has		he	bought?
		she	taken?
		it	begun?

We use the Present Perfect for an action in the past with a result now:

- I've lost my passport. (= I can't find my passport now)
- She's (= she has) gone to bed. (= she is in bed now)
- We've bought a new car. (= we have a new car now)
- It's Kay's birthday tomorrow and I haven't bought her a present.
- "Bob is on holiday." "Oh, where has he gone?"
- "Are they still having dinner?" "No, they've finished."

* The Past Participle of regular verbs is -ed:
clean → have cleaned finish → have finished stop → have stopped

The Past Participle of irregular verbs is sometimes the same as
the Past Simple and sometimes different. For example:
the same: lose → have lost make → have make have → have had
different: do → have done see → have seen write → have written

See Unit 16. Have you ever … (Present Perfect 2)
See Unit 17. How long have you … (Present Perfect 3)
See Unit 19. I have done … (Present Perfect) and I did … (Past Simple)

Unit 16. Have you ever …? (Present Perfect 2)
(настоящее совершенное время 2)

See Unit 15 I have done (Present Perfect 1)

We use the Present Perfect have been/ have played/ have done etc. when we talk about a time from the past until now - for example, your life:

- "Have you been to France?" (in your life) "No, I haven't."
- I've been to Canada but I haven't been to the United States.
- She is an interesting person. She has done many different jobs and has visited many countries.
- I've seen that woman before but I can't remember when.
- How many times has Brazil won the World Cup?
- "Have you read this book?" "Yes, I've read it twice." (= two times)

You can use the Present Perfect + ever (in questions) and never:

- "Has Ann ever been to Australia?" "No, never."
- "Have you ever played golf?" "Yes, once." (= one time)
- My mother has never travelled by air.
- I've never ridden a horse.

gone and been

He's gone to Spain. (= he is in Spain now)	He's been to Spain. (= he went to Spain but now he is back)

Compare:
- I can't find Susan. Where has she gone? (= Where is she now?)
- Oh, hello, Susan. I was looking for you. Where have you been?

See Unit 19 I have done (Present Perfect) and I did (Past Simple)

Unit 17. How long have you …? (Present Perfect 3)
(настоящее совершенное время 3)

Jill is on holiday in London. She arrived in London on Monday. Today is Friday. How long has she been in London?
She has been in London		since Monday. for four days.

	She is in London now.			(is = present)
but	She has been in London		since Monday. for four days.	(has been = Present Perfect)

Compare:

Present Simple Harry is in Canada. Are you married? Do you know Sarah? Linda lives in London. We have a car.

but

Present Perfect He has been in Canada since April. (not He is in Canada since April) How long have you been married? (not How long are you married?) How long have you known her? (not How long do you know her?) I've known her for a long time. How long has she lived in London? She has lived there all her life. How long have you had your car? We've had it for a year.

Present Continuous I'm learning German. It's raining.

but

Present Perfect Continuous (have been -ing) How long have you been learning German? I've been learning German for six weeks. It's been (= it has been) raining since I got up this morning.

See Unit 18 for since ago

Unit 18. for since ago
(предлоги времени)

See Unit 17 How long have you … (Present Perfect 3)

for and since
We use for and since to say how long:

for

four days an hour a week a month five years

ten minutes two hours three weeks six months a long time

We use since + the start of the period (Monday/ 9 o'clock etc.):

since

Monday 9 o'clock 24 July December 1985

Wednesday 12.30 10 October Christmas I got up

Compare:
- Barry has been in Canada since January. (= from January to now)
- Barry has been in Canada for six months. (not since six months)
- I've known her since 1980. (= from 1980 to now)
- I've known her for a long time. (not since a long time)

See Unit 92 from … to until since for

ago = before now:
- Susan started her new job two weeks ago. (= two weeks before now)
- "When did Tom go out?" "Ten minutes ago." (= ten minutes before now)
- I had dinner an hour ago. (= an hour before now)
- Life was very different a hundred years ago.

We use ago with the Past Simple (did/ had/ started etc.)

Compare ago and for:
- When did she arrive in London?
- She arrived in London four days ago.
- How long has she been in London?
- She has been in London for four days.

Unit 19. I have done … (Present Perfect) and I did … (Past Simple)
(смысловые различия между предложениями в настоящем совершенном и простом прошедшем времени)

See Unit 15 I have done … (Present Perfect 1)
See Unit 16 Have you ever … (Present Perfect 2)
See Unit 17 How long have you … (Present Perfect 3)
See Unit 9 I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
See Unit 10 I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)

We use the Past Simple (did/ arrived/ saw/ was etc.) with a finished time (yesterday/ last week/ in 1986/ six months ago etc.):

past + finished time

We arrived

yesterday last week at 3 o'clock in 1986 six months ago

We do not use the Present Perfect (have done / have arrived / have been etc.) with a finished time:

- I saw Jack yesterday. (not I have seen Jack yesterday)
- Where were you last night? (not Where have you been last night?)
- We didn't have a holiday last year. (not We haven't had)
- I got up at 7.15. I washed, dressed and then I had breakfast.
- William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a writer. He wrote many plays and poems.
(not … has been a writer … has written many plays)

Use the Past Simple to ask When? or What time?:

- When did they arrive? (not When have they arrived?)
Compare:

Present Perfect I have lost my key. (= I can't find it now) Bill has gone home. (= he isn't here now) Have you seen Ann? (= where is she now?) Have you ever been to Spain? (= in your life, until now) My friend is a writer. He has written many book. We've lived in Singapore for six years. (we live there now)

but

Past Simple I lost my key yesterday. Bill went home ten minutes ago. When did you see Ann? Did you go to Spain last year? Shakespeare wrote many plays and poems. We lived in Glasgow for six years but now we live in Singapore.

Раздел 4. Использование страдательного залога

Unit 20. it is done/ it was done (passive)
(страдательный залог)

The room is cleaned every day. The room was cleaned yesterday.

Compare:

Somebody cleans the room every day. (active)
The room is cleaned every day. (passive)
Somebody cleaned the room yesterday. (active)
The room was cleaned yesterday. (passive)
The Passive is:

Past Participle

present

am/ is/ are
	(not)
was/ were

+

cleaned	done
exported	made
damaged	broken

past

The Past Participle of regular verbs is -ed (cleaned/ damaged etc.). For a list of irregular past participles (made/ seen etc.), see List of irregular verbs

- Butter is made from milk. - Oranges are imported into Britain. - How often are these rooms cleaned? - I am never invited to parties. - This house was built 100 years ago. - These houses were built 100 years ago. - When was the telephone invented? - I wasn't invited to the party last week. - Six people were injured in the accident yesterday.

We say was/ were born:
- I was born in London in 1958. (not I am born)
- Where were you born?

passive + by …:
- We were woken up by the noise. (= The noise woke us up.)
- The telephone was invented by Alexander Bell in 1876.
- My brother was bitten by a dog last week.

Раздел 5. Использование будущего времени

Unit 21. What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)
(настоящее в будущем)

They are playing tennis now.	She is playing tennis tomorrow.

We use am/ is/ are -ing (Present Continuous) for something happening now (see Unit 3 I am doing (present continuous) and Unit 4 Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)):
- "Where are George and Sue?" "They're playing tennis in the park."
- Please be quiet. I'm working.

We also use am/ is/ are -ing for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.):
- Carol is playing tennis tomorrow.
- I'm not working next week.

I am doing something tomorrow = I have arranged to do something, I have a plan to do something:

- Alice is going to the dentist on Friday. (= she has an appointment with the dentist) - They are going to a concert tomorrow evening. (they have tickets for the concert) - Are you meeting Bill this evening? (= have you and Bill arranged to meet?) - What are you doing at the weekend? - I'm not going out tonight. I'm staying at home.

You can also say "I'm going to do something" (see Unit 22 I’m going to …).

Do not use the Present Simple (I go/ do you go? etc.) for arrangements:
- I'm going out this evening. (not I go)
- Are you going out tonight? (not do you go)
- Ann isn't coming to the party next week. (not Ann doesn't come)

But we use the Present Simple for timetables, programmes, trains etc.:
- The concert starts at 7.30.
- What time does the train leave?

Study the difference:

- I'm going to a concert this evening. The concert starts at 7.30. I'm going - Present Continuous: usually for people The concert starts - Present Simple: for programmes, trains etc.

Unit 22. I’m going to …

She is going to watch TV this evening.
We use am/ is/ are going to … for the future:

I he/ she/ it we/ you/ they

am is (not) are

going to

do … drink … watch …

am is are

I he/ she/ it we/ you/ they

going to

buy …? eat …? wear …?

I am going to do something = I have decided to do something, my intention is to do something:

- I'm going to buy some books tomorrow.
- Sarah is going to sell her car.
- I'm not going to have breakfast this morning. I'm not hungry.
- What are you going to wear to the party on Saturday?
- "Your hair is dirty." "Yes, I know. I'm going to wash it."
- Are you going to invite John to your party?

You can say that something is going to happen when it is clear now that it is sure to happen:

- Look at the sky! It's going to rain. (black clouds now → rain) - Oh dear! It's 9 o'clock and I'm not ready. I'm going to be late. (9 o'clock now and not ready → late)

We also use the Present Continuous (I am -ing) for the future, usually for arrangements (see Unit 21 What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)):
- I am playing tennis with Jack tomorrow.

Unit 23. will/ shall (1)

Bill is 24 years old now. Last year he was 23. Next year he will be 25.

will + infinitive (will be / will win / will come etc.):

positive and negative

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

will ('ll) will not (won't)

be win come eat

question

will

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

be? win? come? eat?

We use will for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.):
- She travels a lot. Today she is in London. Tomorrow she'll be in Rome. Next week she'll be in Tokyo.
- Telephone me this evening. I'll be at home.
- Leave the old bread in the garden. The birds will eat it.
- We'll probably go out this evening.
- Will you be at home this evening?
- I won't be here tomorrow. (= I will not be here)
- Don't drink coffee before you go to bed. You won't sleep.

We often say I think … will…
- I think Diana will pass the exam.
- I don't think it will rain this afternoon.
- Do you think the examination will be difficult?

But do not use will for things you have already arranged to do or decided to do (see Unit 21 What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)):
- We're going to the theatre on Saturday. (not we will go)
- Are you working tomorrow? (not will you work)

shall
You can say I shall (= I will) and we shall (= we will):

- I shall be late tommorrow. - I think we shall win.

or

I will (I'll) be late tomorrow. I think we will (we'll) win.

But don't use shall with you/ they/ he/ she/ it. (not he shall be late)
See Unit 24 will/ shall (2)

Unit 24. will/ shall (2)

See Unit 23 will/ shall (1)

You can use I'll… (= I will) when you offer or decide to do something:
- "My case is very heavy." "I'll carry it for you."
- "I'll phone you tomorrow, okay?" "Okay, goodbye."

We often say I think I'll/ I don't think I'll… when we decide to do something:
- I'm tired. I think I'll go to bed early tonight.
- It's a nice day. I think I'll sit in the garden.
- It's raining. I don't think I'll go out.

Don't use the Present Simple (I go/ I phone etc.) in sentences like these:
- I'll phone you tomorrow, okay? (not I phone you)
- I think I'll go to bed early. (not I go to bed)

Don't use I'll… for something you decided before (see Unit 21 What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)):
- I'm working tomorrow. (not I'll work)
- I'm going to watch TV tonight. (not I'll watch)
- What are you doing at the weekend? (not what will you do)

Shall I …? / Shall we …?

Shall I / Shall we …? = Do you think this is a good thing to do? Do you think this is a good idea?
- It's warm in this room. Shall I open the window?
- "Shall I phone you this evening?" "Yes, please."
- I'm going to a party tonight. What shall I wear?
- It's a nice day. Shall we go for a walk?
- Where shall we go for our holidays this year?
- "Let's go out this evening." "Okay, what time shall we meet?" (Let's see Unit 48 I want you to …/ I told you to …)

Раздел 6. Модальные глаголы

Unit 25. can and could

He can play the piano.

can + infinitive (can do / can play / can come etc.):

positive and negative

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

can can't (cannot)

do play come see

question

can

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

do? play? come? see?

I can do something. = I know how to do it or it is possible for me to do it:
- I can play the piano. My brother can play the piano too.
- Ann can speak Italian but she can't speak Spanish.
- "Can you swim?" "Yes, but not very well."
- "Can you change twenty pounds?" "I'm sorry I can't."
- Bill and Jenny can't come to the party next week.

In the past (yesterday / last week etc.):

can (do) can't (do)

→

could (do) couldn't (do)

- When I was young, I could run very fast.
- Before she came to Britain, she couldn't speak English. Now she can speak English very well.
- I was tired last night but I couldn't sleep.
- Bill and Jenny couldn't come to the party last week.

We use Can you … ? or Could you … ? when we ask people to do things:
- "Can (or Could) you open the door, please?" "Yes, sure."
- Can (or Could) you tell me the time, please?

We use Can I … ? when we ask if it is okay to do something:
- "Tom, can I take your umbrella?" "Yes, of course."
- (on the phone) Hello. Can I speak to Gary, please?

We use Can I have … ? to ask for something:
- (in a shop) Can I have these postcards, please?

Unit 26. may and might

I may go to Paris. (= Perhaps I will go to Paris.)

It might rain. (= Perhaps it will rain.)

may or might + infinitive (may go / might go / may play / might play etc.):

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

may (not) might (not)

be go play come

may/ might = it is possible that something will happen.
You can use may or might:
- I may go to the cinema this evening.
or I might go to the cinema this evening. (= perhaps I will go)
- "When is Kay going to phone you?" "I don't know. She may phone this afternoon."
- Take an umbrella with you. It might rain.
- "Do you think Jack will come to the party?" "I'm not sure. He may." (= He may come.)
- "Are you going out tonight?" "I might." (= I might go out.)

Study the difference:
- I'm playing tennis tomorrow. (sure)
I may play tennis tomorrow. (possible)
- Barbara is going to France next week. (sure)
Barbara might go to France next week. (possible)

The negative is may not or might not:
- I might not go to work tomorrow. (= perhaps I will not go)
- Sue may not come to the party. (= perhaps she will not come)

May I …? = Is it okay to do something?:
- May I smoke? (= Is it okay if I smoke? / Can I smoke?)
- "May I sit here?" "Yes, of course."

Unit 27. must

must + infinitive (must do / must see etc.):

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

must

do go stop write

Use must when you think it is necessary or very important to do something:
- The windows are very dirty. I must clean them.
- It's a fantastic film. You must see it.
- We must go to the bank today. We haven't got any money.

must is present or future:
- I must go to the bank now.
- I must go to the bank tomorrow.

For the past (yesterday / last week etc.), we use had to + infinitive (had to go / had to do / had to write etc.):
- I had to go to the bank yesterday. (= It was necessary for me to go to the bank.)
- We had to walk home last night. There was no bus.
See Unit 29 have to …

mustn't (must not)

I mustn't do it = it is important not to do it, it is a bad thing to do: - I must hurry. I mustn't be late. - I mustn't forget to phone George. (=1 must remember) - You mustn't walk on the grass. (= Don't walk on the grass.)

needn't (need not)
I needn't do it = it is not necessary to do it, I don't need to do it:
- I needn't clean the windows. They aren't dirty.
- You needn't go to the bank. I can give you some money.

You can also say don't need to … (= needn't):
- I don't need to clean the windows.
- You don't need to go to the bank.

Unit 28. should

should + infinitive (should do / should write etc.):

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

should shouldn't

do go stop write

(Someone) should do something = It is a good thing to do or the right thing to do:
- Tom should go to bed earlier. He usually goes to bed very late and he's always tired.
- It's a good film. You should go and see it.
- When you play tennis, you should always watch the ball.

shouldn't (or should not) = It's not a good thing to do or it's not the right thing to do:
- Tom shouldn't go to bed so late.
- You work all the time. You shouldn't work so hard.

We often use think with should:

I think … should …: - I think Carol should buy some new clothes. (=1 think it's a good idea) - It's late. I think we should go home now. - "Shall I buy this coat?" "Yes, I think you should." I don't think… should…: - I don't think you should work so hard. (= I don't think it's a good idea) - I don't think the police should carry guns. Do you think… should… ?: - Do you think I should buy this jacket? - What time do you think we should go home?

must (see Unit 27 must) is stronger than should:
- It's a good film. You should go and see it.
- It's a fantastic film. You must go and see it.

Another way of saying should is ought to …:
- It's a good film. You ought to go and see it. (= You should go and see it.)

Unit 29. have to …

I have to do something = it is necessary for me to do it, I am obliged to do it:

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

have has

to do to work to go to wear

- I'll be late for work tomorrow. I have to go to the dentist.
- Jill starts work at 7.00, so she has to get up at 6.00.
- You have to pass a test before you can get a driving licence.

The past (yesterday / last week etc.) is had to …:
- I was late for work yesterday. I had to go to the dentist.
- There was no bus, so we had to walk home.

In questions and negatives we use do/does (present) and did (past):
present

do does

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

have to …?

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

don't doesn't

have to …

past

did

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

have to …?

I/ we/ you/ they he/ she/ it

didn't have to …

- What time do you have to get up tomorrow morning?
- Does Jill have to work on Saturdays?
- Why did they have to leave the party early?

I don't have to do (something) = it is not necessary to do it:
- I'm not working tomorrow, so I don't have to get up early.
- lan doesn't have to work very hard. He's got an easy job.
- We didn't have to wait very long. The bus soon came.

have to and must (see Unit 27 must)

Use must when you say what you think is necessary, when you are giving your opinion. Usually, have to is also possible:
- It's a fantastic film. You must see it. (or You have to see it)

Use have to (not must) when you are not giving your personal opinion:
- Jill won't be here this afternoon. She has to go to the doctor. (This is not my opinion - it is a fact. )
- In many countries, men have to do military service. (This is not my opinion - it is the law in those countries.)

Unit 30. Would you like …?

Would you like … ? = Do you want … ? We use Would you like … ? to offer things: - "Would you like some coffee?" "Yes, please." - "Would you like a cigarette?" "No, thank you. I don't smoke." - "What would you like, tea or coffee?" "Tea, please."

We use Would you like to … ? to invite someone:
- Would you like to come to a party?
- "Would you like to have dinner with me on Sunday?" "Yes, I'd love to. (= I would love to have dinner with you.)"
- Where would you like to go this evening?

I'd like (I would like) is a polite way of saying "I want":
- (in a restaurant) I'd like fish, please.
- I'm thirsty. I'd like a drink.
- I'd like to see the film on television this evening.

Study the difference:

Would you like … ? / I'd like … Would you like some tea? = Do you want some tea? (an offer)

Do you like … ?/ I like … Do you like tea? = Do you think tea is nice?

- "Would you like to go to the cinema tonight?" (tonight)" "Yes, I'd love to go."
but "Do you like going to the cinema?" (in general) "Yes, I go to the cinema a lot."
- I'd like an orange. (= I want an orange now.)
but I like oranges. (in general)

See Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)

Раздел 7. Смысловые конструкции.

Unit 31. there is,  there are

There's a man on the roof.

There's a train at 10.30.

There are seven days in a week.

singular:

there is … there is not … is there … ?

(there's) (there isn't or there's not)

- There's a big tree in the garden.
- There's a good film on TV this evening.
   I'm going to watch it.
- Excuse me is there a hotel near here?
- "Have you got any money?"
   "Yes, there's some in my bag."
- We can't go skiing. There isn't any snow.

plural:

there are … there are not … are there … ?

(there aren't)

- There are some big trees in the garden.
- Are there any letters for me today?
- This is a modern town. There aren't many old buildings here.
- How many players are there in a football team?
- There are 11 players in a football team.

· there is and it is

Compare:
- A: What's that noise? B: It's a train. (it = that noise)
   There's a train at 10.30. It's a fast train. (it = the 10.30 train)
- There is a lot of salt in this soup.
   I don't like this soup. It's too salty. (it = this soup)

Unit 32. there was/ were/ has been/ will be

there

is/are was/were has been / have been will be

see Unit 31 was/were see Unit 11 has/have been see Unit 15, Unit 16, Unit 17 will see Unit 23

there was/were
	The time is now 11 o'clock. There was a train at 10.30
Compare:
there is/are (Present) · There is a good film on TV this evening. · We are staying at a very big hotel. There are 250 rooms. · I'm hungry but there isn't anything to eat. · Are there any letters for me this morning?	there was/were (Past) · There was a good film on TV yesterday evening. · We stayed at a very big hotel. There were 250 rooms. · When I arrived home, I was hungry but there wasn't anything to eat. · Were there any letters for me yesterday morning?

there has been / there have been
	· Look! There's been an accident. (there's been - there has been) · This road is very dangerous. There have been many accidents on it. but There was an accident last night. (not has been … last night see Unit 19)
There's been an accident.

there will be
· Do you think there will be a lot of people at the party on Saturday? · (from the weather forecast) Tomorrow the weather will be cold. There will be some rain in the afternoon.

Unit 33. it …

· it for time/day/distance/weather

What time is it? It's half past ten. (10.30) It's late. It's time to go home.

What day is it? It's 16 March. It's Thursday today. It's my birthday today.

How far is it from London to Bristol? It's a long way from here to the airport. We can walk home. It isn't far.^* It's 20 miles from our village to the nearest town. ^* Use far in questions (is it far?) and negatives (it isn't far). Use a long way in positive sentences (it's a long way)

	It's raining.   It isn't raining.   Is it snowing? It rains/snows/rained/snowed. It's warm/hot/cold/fine/cloudy/windy/sunny/foggy/dark etc. It's a nice day today.
Compare it and there: · It rains a lot in winter. (rains is a verb) but There is a lot of rain in winter. (rain is a noun) · It was very windy. (windy is an adjective) but There was a strong wind yesterday. (wind is a noun) there is and it is see Unit 31

· it's nice to … etc

It's

easy/difficult/impossible/dangerous/safe/stupid/ cheap/expensive/nice/good/ wonderful/terrible etc

to …

· It's nice to see you again. (it = to see you again)

· It's impossible to understand her. (it = to understand her)

· It wasn't easy to find your house. (it = to find your house)

· Don't forget it:

· It's raining again. (not Is raining again)

· Is it true that you are married? (not Is true that …?)

Unit 34. go/ going work/ working/ play/ playing etc.

· go/work/play etc. (infinitive)

We use the infinitive (go/work/play/be etc.) after:

will shall can could may might must should would

Tom will be here tomorrow. Shall I open the window? I can't play tennis. Could you pass the salt, please? May I smoke? I might be late tonight. It's late. I must go now. You shouldn't work so hard. Would you like some coffee?

see Unit 23 and Unit 24 see Unit 23 and Unit 24 see Unit 25 see Unit 25 see Unit 26 see Unit 26 see Unit 27 see Unit 28 see Unit 30

We use the infinitive with do/does/did:

do does did

Do you work? How much does it cost? What time did they leave?

I don't work. She doesn't play tennis. We didn't sleep very well.

do/does (Present Simple) see Unit 6 and Unit 7
did (Past Simple) see Unit 10

· to go / to work / to play etc. (to + infinitive)

We use to … (to go / to work / to play / to be etc.) after:

(I'm) going (to …) (I) have (to …) (I) want (to …) (I) would like (to …)

I'm going to play tennis tomorrow. What are you going to do? I have to go now. Everybody has to eat. Do you want to go out? They don't want to come with us. I'd like to be rich. Would you like to go out?

see Unit 22 see Unit 29 see Unit 47 see Unit 30

· going/working/playing etc.

We use -ing with am/is/are/was/were:

am/is/are was/were

+ -ing

Present Continuous Past Continuous

see Unit 3, Unit 4, Unit 21 see Unit 12

· Please be quiet. I'm working.

· Tom isn't working today.

· What time are you going out?

· We didn't go out because it was raining.

· What were you doing at 11 o'clock yesterday morning?

See Unit 47 to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)

Unit 35. be/have/do in Present and Past tenses

· be (am/is/are/was/were) -ing (cleaning/working/doing etc.

Present Continuous and Past Continuous

am/is/are -ing Present Continuous see Unit 3, see Unit 4, see Unit 21	- Please be quiet. I'm working. - It isn't raining at the moment. - What are you doing this evening?
was/were -ing Past Continuous see Unit 12	- I was working when she arrived. - It wasn't raining, so we went out. - What were you doing at 3 o'clock?

· be (am/is/are/was/were) + Past Participle (cleaned/made/eaten etc.)

Passive

am/is/are + Past Participle Present Passive see Unit 20	- The room is cleaned every day. - I am never invited to parties. - Oranges are imported into Britain.
was/were + Past Participle Past Passive see Unit 20	- I was working when she arrived. - It wasn't raining, so we went out. - What were you doing at 3 o'clock?

· have/has + Past Participle (cleaned/lost/eaten/been/gone etc.)

Present Perfect

have/has + Past Participle Present Perfect see Unit 15, see Unit 16, see Unit 17

- I have cleaned my room. - Tom has lost his passport. - Barbara hasn't been to Canada. - Where have they gone?

· do/does/did + Infinitive (clean/like/eat/go etc.)

Present Simple and Past Simple - negatives and questions

do/does + Infinitive Present Simple negatives and questions see Unit 6, see Unit 7	- I like coffee but I don't like tea. - Tom doesn't smoke. - What do you usually do at weekends? - Does Barbara live alone?
did + Infinitive Past Simple negatives and questions see Unit 10	- I didn't watch TV yesterday. - It didn't rain last week. - What time did Barbara go out?

Unit 36. Regular and irregular verbs

· Past Simple and Past Participle

The Past Simple and Past Participle of regular verbs is -ed:
clean → cleaned   live → lived   paint → painted

Past Simple (see Unit 9):
I cleaned my shoes yesterday.
Charlie studied engineering at university.

We use the Past Participle for the Present Perfect and the Passive.
Present Perfect = have/has + Past Participle (see Unit 15, see Unit 16, see Unit 17):
- I have cleaned my shoes.
- Joan has lived in London for ten years.

Passive = be (am/is/are/was/were) + Past Participle (see Unit 20):
- These rooms are cleaned every day.
- My car was repaired last week.

· Irregular verbs

The Past Simple and Past Participle of irregular verbs are not -ed:

	make	break	cut
Past Simple	made	broke	cut
Past Participle	made	broken	cut

Sometimes the Past Simple and Past Participle are the same. For example:

	make	find	buy	cut
Past Simple	made	found	bought	cut
Past Participle	made	found	bought	cut

- I made a cake yesterday. (Past Simple)
- I have made some coffee. (Past Participle - Present Perfect)
- Butter is made from milk. (Past Participle - Present Passive)

Sometimes the past simple and past participle are different. For example:

	break	know	begin	go
Past Simple	broke	knew	began	went
Past Participle	broken	known	begun	gone

- Somebody broke this window last night. (Past Simple)
- Somebody has broken this window. (Past Participle - Present Perfect)
- This window was broken last night. (Past Participle - Past Passive)

Unit 37. I am /I don't etc.

She isn't tired but he is. (he is = he is tired)	He smokes but she doesn't. (she doesn't = she doesn't smoke)

am/is/are   was/were   have/has   do/does/did

can   will   must   may    might   would   should

· We use these verbs with other verbs (am going / has seen / can't come etc.) but you can also use them alone:

- I haven't got a car but my sister has. (= my sister has got a car)
- ‘Please help me.’ ‘I'm sorry, I can't.’ (= I can't help you)
- ‘Are you tired?’ ‘I was, but I'm not now.’ (= I was tired but I'm not tired now.)
- ‘Do you think Ann will come?’ ‘She might.’ (= She might come.)
- ‘Are you going now?’ ‘Yes, I'm afraid I must.’ (= I must go)

· You can use these verbs in this way with Yes … and No …:

- ‘Is it raining?’ ‘Yes, it is. / No, it isn't.’
- ‘Have you ever been to Canada?’ ‘Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.’
- ‘Will Alan be here tomorrow?’ ‘Yes, he will. / No, he won't.’

· Use do/does for the Present Simple:

- I don't like hot weather but Sue does. (= Sue likes hot weather)
- She works very hard but I don't. (= I don't work very hard)
- ‘Do you enjoy your work?’ ‘Yes, I do.’

Use did for the Past Simple:

- ‘Did you and John enjoy the film?’ ‘I did but John didn't.’
(= I enjoyed it but John didn't enjoy it.)
- ‘Did it rain yesterday?’ ‘No, it didn't.’

· You cannot use the short forms 'm/'s/'re/'ve/'ll at the end of a sentence. Use the full forms am/is/are/have/will etc.:

- ‘Are you tired?’ ‘Yes, I am.’ (not ‘Yes, I'm.’)

Unit 38. Have you? / Are you? / Don't you? etc.

· In conversation, you can say have you? / is it? / can't he? etc. to show that you are interested or surprised. You can use these verbs in this way:

am/is/are   was/were   have/has   do/does/did   can   will.

- ‘You're late.’   ‘Oh, am I? I'm sorry.’
- ‘I was ill last week.’   ‘Were you? I didn't know that.’
- ‘It's raining again.’   ‘Is it? It was sunny five minutes ago.’

- ‘Bill can't drive.’   ‘Can't he? I didn't know that.’
- ‘I'm not hungry.’   ‘Aren't you? I am.’
- ‘Sue isn't at work today.’   ‘Isn't she? Is she ill?’

Use do/does for the Present Simple, did for the Past Simple:
- ‘I speak four languages.’   ‘Do you? Which ones?’
- ‘Tom doesn't eat meat.’   ‘Doesn't he? Does he eat fish?’
- ‘Linda got married last week.’   ‘Did she? Really?’

· Question tags

You can use … have you? /… is it? / … can't she? etc. at the end of a sentence. These ‘endings’ are question tags (= mini-questions). A positive sentence → a negative question tag A negative sentence → a positive question tag

positive → negative
It's a beautiful day, isn't it? She lives in London, doesn't she? You closed the window, didn't you? Those shoes are nice, aren't they? Tom will be at home tomorrow, won't he?	Yes, it's lovely. Yes, that's right. Yes, I think so. Yes, very nice. Yes, I think so.

negative → positive
That isn't your car, is it? You don't smoke, do you? You haven't met my mother, have you? You won't be late, will you?	No, my car is white. No, never. No, I haven't. No, don't worry.

Unit 39. too/either so am I/neither do I etc.

too and either

We use too and either at the end of a sentence. We use too after a positive verb: - ‘I'm happy.’ ‘I'm happy too.’ - ‘I enjoyed the film.’ ‘I enjoyed it too.’ - Mary is a doctor. Her husband is a doctor too. We use either after a negative verb (am not / isn't / can't etc.): - ‘I'm not happy.’ ‘I'm not happy either.’ (not ‘I'm not happy too.’) - ‘I can't cook.’ ‘I can't either.’ - Bill doesn't watch TV. He doesn't read newspapers either.

So am I / Neither do I etc.

	am/is/are …
	was/were …
so	do/does …
	did …
	have/has …
neither	can …
	will …
	must …

So am I (= I am too), So have I (= I have too) etc.:
- ‘I'm tired.’ ‘So am I.’ (not ‘So I am.’)
- ‘I was late for work today.’ ‘So was John.’
- ‘I work in a bank.’ ‘So do I.’
- ‘We went to the cinema last night.’ ‘Did you? So did we.’

Neither am I (= I'm not either), Neither have I (= I haven't either) etc.:

- ‘I haven't got a key.’ ‘Neither have I.’ (not ‘Neither I have.’)
- ‘Ann can't cook.’ ‘Neither can Tom.’
- ‘I won't (= will not) be here tomorrow.’ ‘Neither will I.’
- ‘I never eat meat.’ ‘Neither do I.’

You can also use Nor … (= Neither):
- ‘I'm not married.’ ‘Nor am I.' (= Neither am I.)’

See Unit 37. I am / I don’t etc.

Unit 40. Negatives: isn’t/ haven’t/ don’t etc.
(отрицательные предложения с вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)

· We use not (n't) in negative sentences:

positive → negative

am is are was were have has will would can could should must

am not ('m not) is not (isn't or 's not) are not (aren't or 're not) was not (wasn't) were not (weren't) have not (haven't) has not (hasn't) will not (won't) would not (wouldn't) cannot (can't) could not (couldn't) should not (shouldn't) must not (mustn't)

I'm not tired. It isn't (or It's not) raining. They aren't (or They're not) here. Jack wasn't hungry. The shops weren't open. I haven't finished my work. Sue hasn't got a car. They won't be here tomorrow. I wouldn't like to be an actor. George can't drive. I couldn't sleep last night. You shouldn't work so hard. I mustn't forget to phone Ann.

· Present Simple negative (See Unit 6. I don’t … (Present Simple negative)
(отрицательные формы глаголов в простом настоящем времени)):

I/we/you/they do not (don't) he/she/it does not (doesn't)

+ infinitive (work/live/go etc.)

Past Simple negative (See Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)):

I/they/he/she etc. did not (didn't) + infinitive

positive I smoke. They work hard. Tom plays the guitar. She likes her job. I got up early. We worked hard. They saw the film. She had a bath.

→

negative I don't smoke. They don't work hard. Tom b the guitar. She doesn't like her job. I didn't get up early. We didn't work hard. They didn't see the film. She didn't have a bath.

· The negative of ‘Look!’, ‘Go away!’ etc. is ‘Don't… !’:

Look! Go away!

→

Don't look! Don't go away!

· Do can also be the main verb (don't do / didn't do etc.):

positive Do it. He does a lot of work. I did the examination.

→

negative Don't do it. He doesn't do much work. I didn't do the examination.

Раздел 8. Образование вопросительных предложений

Unit 41. Questions (1) Is it …? Have you …? Do they …? etc.
(вопросительные предложения со вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)

positive	you	X	are	You are eating.
question	are		you	Are you eating?	What are you eating?

· In questions, the first verb (is/are/have etc.) is before the subject:

positive		question
subject + verb			verb +	subject
I am late.	→		Am	I late?
That seat is free.			Is	that seat free?
She was angry.		Why	was	she angry?
David has gone.		Where	has	David gone?
You have got a car.			Have	you got a car?
They will be here.		When	will	they be here?
Tom can swim.			Can	Tom swim?

· Be careful with word order: the subject is after the first verb:

- Where has David gone? (not ‘Where has gone David?’)
- Why are those people waiting? (not ‘Why are waiting those people?’)

· Present Simple questions: (See Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)
(вопросительные предложения в простом настоящем времени)

do (I/we/you/they) does (he/she/it)

+ infinitive (work/live/go etc.)

Past Simple questions: (See Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)):

did (you/they/she etc.) + infinitive

positive		question
subject + verb			verb +	subject
You smoke.	→		Do you	smoke?
They live in London.		Where	do they	live?
Jack smokes.			Does Jack	smoke?
She gets up early.		What time	does she	get up?
They worked hard.			Did they	work hard?
You had dinner.		What	did you	have for dinner?
She got up early.		What time	did she	get up?

Do can also be the main verb (do you do / did she do etc.):

- What do you usually do at weekends?
- ‘What does your sister do?’ ‘She works in a bank.’
- ‘I broke my leg.’ ‘How did you do that?’ (not ‘How did you that?’)

· Negative questions with Why … ? (Why isn't …? / Why don't … ? etc.): Be careful with word order in these questions:

- Where's John? Why isn't he here? (not ‘Why he isn't here?’)
- Why can't Paula come to the meeting? (not ‘Why Paula can't …’)
- Why didn't you phone me last night?

See Unit 42 Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see? and Unit 43 Who is she talking to? What is it like?

Unit 42. Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see?
(вопросительные предложения (2)

Fred saw Julia. Who saw Julia? Fred. Who did Fred see? Julia.

· In these questions who or what is the subject:

- Who lives in that house? (= Somebody lives there- who?) (not ‘Who does live …?’)
- What happened? (= Something happened-what?) (not ‘What did happen?’)
- What's (= What is) burning?
- Who's got (= Who has got) my key?

· In these questions who or what is the object:

- Who did you meet yesterday? (= You met somebody - who?)
- What did she say? (= She said something - what?)
- Who are you phoning?
- What was he wearing?

Compare:

- George likes eggs.	→	Who likes eggs? George. What does George like? Eggs.
- Jill won some money.		Who won some money? Jill. What did Jill win? Some money.

· Use who for people (somebody), what for things, ideas etc. (something):

- Who is your favourite singer?
- What is your favourite song?

Unit 43. Questions (3) Who is she talking to? What is it like?
(вопросительные предложения (3)

Julia is talking to someone. Who? Who is Julia talking to?

· Questions (Who … ? / What… ? / Where … ? / Which … ?) often end with a preposition (to/for/about/with etc.):

- ‘I'm thinking.’ ‘What are you thinking about?’
- ‘I'm afraid.’ ‘Why? What are you afraid of?’
- ‘Where is your friend from?’ ‘She's from Germany.’
- ‘Who does this book belong to?’ ‘It's mine.’
- ‘Who did she go on holiday with?’ ‘With her parents.’
- ‘What does he look like?’ ‘He's got a beard and wears glasses.’
- ‘This book is very good.’ ‘Is it? What is it about?’
- ‘Tom's father is in hospital.’ ‘Which hospital is he in?’

· What (is/are/was/were) … like?

‘What is it like?’ = Tell me something about it; is it good or bad, big or small, old or new? etc.

When we say ‘What … like?’, like is a preposition. It is not the verb like (Do you like music? etc.).

- A: I went to the new restaurant last night.
  B: Oh, did you? What's it like? Good?
  A: Yes, excellent.
- A: What's your new teacher like?
  B: She's very good. We learn a lot.
- A: I met Linda's parents yesterday.
  B: Oh, what are they like?
  A: They're very friendly.
- A: What was the weather like when you were on holiday?
B: Very nice.

Unit 44. What … ? Which … ? How … ?

· What … ?

What + noun (What colour … ? / What kind … ? etc.):
- What colour is your car? What colour are your eyes?
- What size is this shirt? What kind of job do you want?
- What make is your TV set? What time is it?
What without a noun:
- What's your favourite colour?
- What do you want to do this evening?
What and Who Unit 42. Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see?
(вопросительные предложения (2))

· Which … ?

Which + noun (things or people):
- Which train did you catch - the 9.50 or the 10.30?
- Which doctor did you see - Doctor Ellis, Doctor Gray or Doctor Hill?
Which without a noun (not people):
- Which is bigger - Canada or Australia?
but Who is taller - Bill or Jerry? (Who for people)
Which one(s) Unit 69. one/ ones

· What … ? and Which … ?

We say Which when we are thinking about a small number (perhaps two, three or four things):

- We can go this way or that way. Which way shall we go? - There are four umbrellas here. Which is yours?

Use What in other situations:
- What is the capital of Italy?
- What sort of music do you like? (not ‘Which sort … ?’)
Compare:
- What colour are your eyes? (not ‘Which colour … ?’)
but Which colour do you prefer, pink or yellow?

· How … ?

- ‘How was the party last night?’ ‘It was great!’
- ‘How do you usually go to work?’ ‘By bus.’
How + adjective/adverb (how old / how big / how fast etc.):
- How old is your father? How tall are you? How big is the house?
- How far is it to the shops from here?
- How often do you go on holiday?

Unit 45. How long does it take?

How long does it take by plane from London to Madrid? It takes two hours.	I started reading the book two weeks ago. I finished it today. It took me two weeks to read it.

How long does it take		by plane   by train   by car	from … to … ?
It takes	two hours   ten minutes   a long time	by plane   by train   by car	from … to … ?

- How long does it take by train from London to Manchester?
It takes two hours by train from London to Manchester.
- How long does it take by car from your house to the station?
It takes ten minutes by car from my house to the station.

How long	did does will	it take	(you)   (Ann)   (them)	to (do something)?
It	took takes will take	(me)   (Ann)   (them)	a week   a long time   three hours	to (do something).

- How long does it take to cross the Atlantic Ocean by ship?
- How long will it take me to learn to drive?
- ‘I came by train.’ ‘Did you? How long did it take?’
- Did it take you a long time to find a job?
- It takes a long time to learn a language.
- It takes me 20 minutes to get to work in the morning.
- It took Tom an hour to do his shopping.
- It will take me an hour to cook the dinner.
- It doesn't take long to cook an omelette.

Unit 46. Can you tell me where …? Do you know what …? etc.

We say: Where is the station?
but
Can you tell me where the station is?
(not ‘Can you tell me where is the station?’)
also:

I know I don't know Do you know I can't remember I wonder (etc.)

where the station is (?)

Who are those people?
Where have they gone?
How old is Tom?
What time is the bus?
When is Ann going away?
How much is this camera?
Why were they late?
What was he wearing?

but

Do you know
I don't know
I know
Can you tell me
I can't remember

who those people are where they've gone how old Tom is what time the bus is when Ann is going away how much this camera is why they were late what he was wearing

?

· Questions with do/does/did (Present Simple and Past Simple):

Where does he live?
Do you know where he lives?	(not ‘Do you know where does he live?’)

How do aeroplanes fly?
What does she want?
Why did she go home?
Where did I put the key?

but

Do you know
I don't know
I know
Can you tell me
I can't remember

how aeroplanes fly what she wants why she went home where I put the key?

?

· Questions beginning Is …? / Do … ? / Can … ? etc. (yes/no questions):

Is Jack at home?
Have they got a car?
Can he help us?
Does Ann smoke?
Did anybody see you?

but

Do you know
I don't know

if
or
whether

Jack is at home they've got a car he can help us Ann smokes anybody saw me

?

You can use if or whether in these sentences:
- Do you know if she smokes? or Do you know whether she smokes?

Раздел 9. Смысловые конструкции 2.

Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)

· verbs + to … (I want to do)

want need plan

decide offer refuse

hope expect promise

try forget learn

+

to … (to do / to work / to be etc.)

- What do you want to do this evening?
- I hope to go to university next year.
- We have decided to leave tomorrow morning.
- You forgot to switch off the light when you went out.
- My brother is learning to drive.
- I tried to work but I was too tired.

· verbs + -ing (I like doing)

like enjoy

love hate

suggest mind

stop finish

+

-ing (doing/working/being etc.)

- I enjoy dancing. (not ‘enjoy to dance’) - Do you like driving? - I hate getting up in the morning. - Ann loves going to the cinema. - Has it stopped raining? - Mary suggested going to the cinema. - I don't mind being alone.

but

would like would love

would hate would prefer

+

to … (to do / to work / to be etc.)

- Jan would like to meet you. (not ‘would like meeting’)
- I'd love to go to Australia. (I'd = I would)
- ‘Would you like to sit down?’ ‘No, I'd prefer to stand, thank you.’
- I wouldn't like to be a teacher.

See Unit 30. Would you like …?

· verbs + to … or -ing:

start begin

continue prefer

+

to … (to do etc.)
or -ing (doing etc.)

- It started raining. or It started to rain.
- I prefer travelling by car. or I prefer to travel by car.
(but would prefer to do something)

Unit 48. I want you to …/ I told you to …

The woman wants to go. The man doesn't want the woman to go. He wants her to stay. (I) want to … (I) want (somebody) to …

· We say I want (you) to …:

- I want you to be happy. (not ‘I want that you are happy.’)
- They didn't want anybody to know their secret.

We also use this structure (verb + somebody + to …) with:

tell
ask
advise
persuade
expect
teach

I She What do you We I didn't I

told asked advise persuaded expect taught

you her friend me George you my brother

to be to help to do? to come to be to swim.

careful. her. with us. here.

· I told (somebody) to … /I told (somebody) not to …:

- Tom said (to Ann): ‘Wait for me!’ -> Tom told Ann to wait for him. Tom said (to Ann): ‘Don't wait for me.’ -> Tom told Ann not to wait for him.

· make and let

After make and let we do not use to:
- He's very funny. He makes us laugh. (not ‘makes us to laugh’)
- I don't want you to go alone. Let me go with you. (not ‘Let me to go’)

Let's (do something)
You can say Let's … (= let us) when you want people to do things with you:
- Come on! Let's dance!
- ‘Shall we go out tonight?’ ‘No, I'm tired. Let's stay at home.’

· help

You can say help somebody do or help somebody to do:
- Tom helped me carry the box. or Tom helped me to carry the box.

Unit 49. He said that …/ He told me that …

· After said that / told (somebody) that… a verb is usually past:

am/is -> was	(she said) ‘I'm working.’ -> She said that she was working. (they said to us) ‘The hotel isn't very good.’ -> They told us that the hotel wasn't very good.
are -> were	(I said) ‘The shops are open.’ -> I said that the shops were open.
have/has -> had	(I said to him) ‘I've finished my work.’ -> I told him that I had finished my work.
can -> could	(Tom said) ‘I can't come to the party.’ -> Tom said that he couldn't come to the party.
will -> would	(my friends said to me) ‘The exam will be easy.’ -> My friends told me that the exam would be easy.
do/does -> did	(I said) ‘It doesn't matter.’ -> I said that it didn't matter. (he said) ‘I don't know your address.’ -> He said that he didn't know my address.
like -> liked go -> went (etc.)	(Mary said) ‘I like tomatoes.’ -> Mary said that she liked tomatoes. (they said) ‘We often go to the cinema.’ -> They said that they often went to the cinema.

· say (-> said) and tell (-> told)

say something (to somebody): They said that… (not ‘They said me that …’)
tell somebody something: They told me that… / They told Ann that…

- He said that he was tired. (not ‘He said me that he was tired.’)
but He told me that he was tired. (not ‘He told that he was tired.’)
- What did he say to you? (not ‘say you’)
but What did he tell you? (not ‘tell to you’)

· ‘that’ is not necessary in these sentences. You can say:

- He said that he was tired. or He said he was tired. (without ‘that’)

Unit 50. I went to the shop to buy …

Ann didn't have any bread. But she wanted some bread. So she went to the shop. Why did she go to the shop? To buy some bread. She went to the shop to buy some bread.

· to … (to do / to buy / to see etc.) tells us why a person does something (the purpose):

- ‘Why are you going out?’ ‘To buy a newspaper.’
- George went to the station to meet his friend.
- She turned on the TV to watch the news.
- I'd like to go to Spain to learn Spanish.

money /time to (do something):

- We need some money to buy food.
- I haven't got time to watch television.

· to … and for …:

to + verb: to buy / to have / to see etc.
for + noun: for some bread / for dinner / for a holiday etc.
- She went to the shop to buy some bread. (to + verb)
but She went to the shop for some bread. (for + noun)
- They are going to Scotland to see their grandmother. (not ‘for to see’)
but They are going to Scotland for a holiday.
- We need some money to buy food. (not ‘for buy’)
but We need some money for food.

· wait

wait for somebody/something:
- Are you waiting for the bus?
- Please wait for me.

wait for somebody/something to …:
- I can't go out yet. I'm waiting for John to phone.
- I was having dinner when they arrived. They waited for me to finish my meal.

See Unit 85. enough
See Unit 86. too

Unit 51. get

· get something/somebody = receive/buy/fetch/find

- Did you get my letter last week? (= receive)
- I like your pullover. Where did you get it? (= buy)
- (on the phone) ‘Hello, can I speak to Ann, please?’ ‘One moment. I'll get her.’ (= fetch)
- Is it difficult to get a job in your country? (= find)

· get cold/hungry/tired/better etc. (get + adjective) = become

- Drink your coffee. It's getting cold.
- If you don't eat, you get hungry.
- I'm sorry he's ill. I hope he gets better soon.

also: get married and get lost:
- Linda and Frank are getting married next month.
- I went for a walk and got lost. (= I lost my way)

· get to a place (get to work / get to London / get home etc.) = arrive

- I usually get to work before 8.30. (= arrive at work) - We went to Oxford yesterday. We left London at 8.00 and got to Oxford at 9.00. - Can you tell me how to get to the city centre? but get home (not ‘get to home’): - What time did you get home last night?

· get in/out/on/off

get in (a car) get out (of a car)	get on/get off (a bus, a train, a plane)

- She got in the car and drove away. (you can also say ‘got into the car’)
- A car stopped and a man got out. (but ‘got out of the car’)
- They got on the bus outside the hotel and got off in Cross Street.

Unit 52. go

· go to … (go to London / go to work / go to a concert etc.)

- I'm going to France next week. - What time do you usually go to work? - Tom didn't want to go to the concert. - I went to the dentist on Friday. - What time did you go to bed last night?

also: go to sleep (= start to sleep):
- I went to bed and went to sleep very quickly.

go home (without to):
- I'm going home now. (not ‘going to home’)

· go on holiday / a trip / an excursion / a cruise

- We go on holiday (to Scotland) every year.
- When we were on holiday, we went on a lot of excursions to different places.
- Schoolchildren often go away on school trips.

· go for a walk / a run / a swim / a drink / a meal / a holiday

- The sea looks nice. Let's go for a swim.
- Last night we went out for a meal. The restaurant was very good.
- ‘Where's Ann?’ ‘She's gone for a walk in the park.’
- They've gone to Scotland for a holiday.
(We say ‘on holiday’ but ‘for a holiday’)

· go swimming / go shopping etc.

We use go -ing for sporting activities (go swimming / go skiing / go jogging / go fishing etc.) and also shopping (go shopping):

I go he is going we went they have gone she wants to go

shopping swimming fishing sailing skiing etc.

- We live near the mountains. In winter we go skiing every weekend.
- She has a small boat and she often goes sailing.
- Are you going shopping this afternoon?
- It's a nice day. Let's go swimming. (or Let's go for a swim.)
- George went fishing last Sunday. He caught a lot offish.

Раздел 10. Местоимения

Unit 53. I/me, he/him, they/them etc.

· people

subject	I	we	you	he	she	they
object	me	us	you	him	her	them

subject I we you he she they

I like Ann. We like Ann. You like Ann. He likes Ann. She likes Ann. They like Ann.

Ann likes me. Ann likes us. Ann likes you. Ann likes him. Ann likes her. Ann likes them.

object me us you him her them

Use me/him/her etc. (object) after prepositions (for/to/at/with etc.):

- This letter isn't for you. It's for me.
- Where's Alan? I want to talk to him.
- Who is that woman? Why are you looking at her?
- We're going to the cinema. Do you want to come with us?
- They are going to the cinema. Do you want to go with them?

· things

subject object	it it	they them

- I want that book. Please give it to me.
- I want those books. Please give them to me.
- Diane never drinks milk. She doesn't like it.
- I never go to parties. I don't like them.
- ‘Where's the newspaper?’ ‘You're sitting on it.’

Unit 54. my/his/their etc.

I -> my we -> our you -> your he -> his she -> her they -> their it -> its

I like my job. We like our jobs. You like your job. He likes his job. She likes her job. They like their jobs. Oxford (= it) is famous for its university.

We use my/your/his/her etc. + a noun:

my hands our house

his mother your best friend

her new car their room

· his/her/their:

· its and it's:

its it's (= it is)

Oxford is famous for its university. I like Oxford. It's a nice city. (= It is nice.)

Unit 55. Whose is this? It’s mine.

I -> my -> mine
we -> our -> ours
you -> your -> yours
he -> his -> his
she -> her -> hers
they -> their -> theirs

It's my money. It's our money. It's your money. It's his money. It's her money. It's their money.

It's mine. It's ours. It's yours. It's his. It's hers. It's theirs.

· my/our/your/her/their + a noun (my hands/your book etc.):

- My hands are cold.
- Is this your book?
- Ann gave me her umbrella.
- It's their problem, not our problem.

· mine/ours/yours/hers/theirs without a noun:

- These books are mine but this newspaper is yours. (= your newspaper)
- I didn't have an umbrella, so Ann gave me hers. (= her umbrella)
- It's their problem, not ours. (= our problem)
- ‘Is that their car?’ ‘No, theirs is green.’ (= their car)

· his with or without a noun:

- Is this his camera?
- It's a nice camera. Is it his?

· We say: a friend of mine/a friend of his/some friends of yours etc.:

- I went out to meet a friend of mine. (not ‘a friend of me’)
- Are those people friends of yours? (not ‘friends of you’)

· Whose …?

- Whose book is this? (= Is it your book? his book? my book? etc.)

You can use whose with or without a noun:

Whose money is this? Whose is this?		It's mine.
Whose shoes are these? Whose are these?		They're John's.

Unit 56. I/me/my/mine

	I etc.	me etc.	my etc.	mine etc.
	I know Tom.	Tom knows me.	It's my car.	It's mine.
	We know Tom.	Tom knows us.	It's our car.	It's ours.
	You know Tom.	Tom knows you.	It's your car.	It's yours.
	He know Tom.	Tom knows him.	It's his car.	It's his.
	She know Tom.	Tom knows her.	It's her car.	It's hers.
	They know Tom.	Tom knows them.	It's their car.	It's theirs.
	See Unit 53.	See Unit 53.	See Unit 54.	See Unit 55.

- ‘Do you know that man?’ ‘Yes, I know him but I can't remember his name.’
- She was very happy because we invited her to stay with us at our house.
- ‘Where are the children? Have you seen them?’ ‘Yes, they are playing with their friends in the garden.’
- That pen is mine. Can you give it to me, please?
- ‘Is this your umbrella?’ ‘No, it's yours.’
- He didn't have an umbrella, so she gave him hers. (= she gave her umbrella to him)
- I gave him my address and he gave me his. (= he gave his address to me)

Unit 57. myself/yourself/himself etc.

I	->	me	->		myself	I	looked at	myself.
he		him			himself	He		himself.
she		her			herself	She		herself.
you		you			yourself.	You		yourself.	(one person)
					yourselves.	You		yourselves.	(two or more people)
we		us			ourselves	We		ourselves
they		them			themselves	They		themselves

- I cut myself with a knife. (not ‘I cut me’)
- She fell off her bicycle but she didn't hurt herself.
- Do you sometimes talk to yourself when you are alone?
- If you want some more food, help yourselves.
- Did they pay for themselves or did you pay for them?
- ‘Did you all have a nice time?’ ‘Yes, we enjoyed ourselves.’

· by myself/by yourself etc. = alone

- I went on holiday by myself. (= I went on holiday alone.)
- She wasn't with her friends. She was by herself.

· -selves and each other

- I looked at myself and Tom looked at himself. = We looked at ourselves (in the mirror). but I looked at Tom and he looked at me. = We looked at each other.
- Jill and Ann are good friends. They know each other very well. (= Jill knows Ann and Ann knows Jill.) - Paul and I live near each other. (== Paul lives near me and I live near him.)

Unit 58. -’s (Ann’s camera/my brother’s car etc.

Ann's camera (her camera)	my brother's car (his car)	the manager's office (his or her office)

· We normally use -'s (not of …) for people:

- I stayed at my sister's house. (not ‘the house of my sister’)
- Have you met Mr Kelly's wife? (not ‘the wife of Mr Kelly’)
- Are you going to James's party?
- Ann is a girl's name.

You can use -'s without a noun:

- Mary's hair is longer than Ann's. (= Ann's hair)
- ‘Whose umbrella is this?’ ‘It's my mother's.’ (= my mother's umbrella)
- ‘Where were you last night?’ ‘At John's.’ (= John's house)

· friend's and friends'

my friend's house = one friend (= his house or her house)	my friends' house = two or more friends (= their house)

We write -'s after friend/student/mother etc. (singular):
my mother's car (one mother)
my father's car (one father)

We write -' after friends/students/parents etc. (plural):
my parents' car (two parents)

· We use of … (not usually -'s) for things, places etc.:

the roof of the building (not ‘the building's roof’)
the beginning of the film (not ‘the film's beginning’)
the time of the next train
the capital of Spain
the meaning of this word
the name of this town
the cause of the problem
the back of the car

Раздел 11. Употребление артиклей и предлогов с именами существительными

Unit 59. a/an
(неопределенный артикль)

· a = “one”. Don't forget a:

- Do you want a cup of tea? (not “Do you want cup of tea?”)
- Alice works in a bank. (not “in bank”)
- I want to ask a question. (not “ask question”)
- When I was a child, I liked reading stories.
- Birmingham is a large city in central England.

· an (not a) before a/e/i/o/u:

- They live in an old house. (not “a old house.”)
- A mouse is an animal. It's a small animal.
- Can you give me an example, please?
- This is an interesting book.
- I bought a hat and an umbrella.

also	an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)
but	a university a European country
	(these words are pronounced “yuniversity”, “yuropean”)

· We use a/an for jobs etc.:

- “What's your job?” “I'm a dentist.” (not “I'm dentist.”) - “What does she do?” “She's an engineer.” - Would you like to be a teacher? - Beethoven was a composer. - Picasso was a famous painter. - Are you a student?

· another (an + other) is one word (not “an other”):

- Can I have another cup of coffee?
- Open another window. It's very hot.

ЧАСТЬ 2. Практикум по закреплению навыков.

Раздел 1.  Работа с текстами.

Unit 1.

1) Read the text.

ACCESS METHODS

An access method is a technique for accessing data that has been placed on some kind of mass storage device: magnetic tape at one time, but now most often a hard disk. While the term access method is most properly used to describe the method used to retrieve the data, it is also frequently used as a synonym for the program or routine that implements the method. All  manufacturers provide  computers  with the service routines to implement access methods, as a general  component of an operating system. Instead of access method, terms such as data management, file control program, and I/O (input or output) supervisor are sometimes used, depending on the manufacturer. The terminology used in this article is common to several manufacturers, including IBM, but not all manufacturers support every variant described. …

2) Study the word combinations:

accessing data - доступ к данным

mass storage device - запоминающее устройство большой емкости

magnetic tape - магнитная лента

service routines – обслуживающие программы

data management - управление данными

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) What is the access method?

2) Which term is used instead of access method?

3) How do all computer manufactures provide service routines?

4) What manufactures are the terminology “access method” common to?

4) Find English  equivalents in the text.

1) Все производители  оснащают компьютеры обслуживающими  программами для внедрения методов  доступа, в основном, в качестве  компонентов  операционной системы. 

2) Метод доступа - это  технология доступа к данным, которые находятся на некотором запоминающем устройстве большой емкости.

3) Иногда вместо понятия “метод доступа” используются такие термины, как: управление данными, программа управления файлами, диспетчер В/В (ввод / вывод), в зависимости от производителя.

5) Fill in the blanks with suitable words and word combinations from the text.

1) An access method is a technique for accessing data that has been _____ some kind of mass storage device.

2)  _____ access method, terms such as data management supervisor are sometimes used, _____ the manufacturer.

3) The terminology used in this article is _____ several manufacturers.

4) The term access method is most _____describe the method used to retrieve the data.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

At one time, placed on, used as, instead of, common to, depending on, component of.

Unit 2.

1) Read the text.

VIRTUAL MEMORY

Many programs are too long to fit into the space in main memory that can be allocated to them at run time. In a uniprogramming system, this will be true when the amount of space required by the program is greater than the total memory available to problem programs. In a multiprogramming system it may be true because the amount of space that is needed is more than the operating system is willing to allocate to this particular program. In either case, it becomes necessary to break the program up into sections, segments, or overlays so that the entire program need not be in main memory at the same time. The term folding has sometimes been used for this process.

In many old systems, the programmer had the responsibility for breaking the program into overlays and for providing the loading instructions that bring necessary overlays into main memory as they are needed. Many software systems provided aids to overlay planning. The user could name the overlays so that all symbolic addresses in an overlay would automatically be tagged with a special identifier that indicated which overlay they belonged to. A loader or linker сreated an object program organized as a set of overlays and a root segment containing information about the overlay structure. The root segment would be loaded into main memory along with the segments needed to get the program started. Any reference to a symbolic address in a segment not in main memory would cause a call on the supervisor to load the required segment, overlaying other segments if necessary. …

2) Study the word combinations:

entire program - целая программа

particular program - конкретная программа

software systems - система программного обеспечения

special identifier – специальный идентификатор

root segment - корневой сегмент

run time - время выполнения ( программы )

folding  - свертывание

identifier - идентификатор

supervisor – супервизор (устаревшее название операционной системы)

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) What is virtual memory?

2) Where are many programs allocated to?

3) What’s a multiprogramming system?

4) What responsibility did the programmer have for in many old systems?

5) What systems did provide aids to overlay planning?

6) Where would the root segment be loaded?

7) How could the user name the overlays?

4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) В мультипрограммной системе это возможно, потому что  количество места, которое необходимо, больше, чем операционная система может выделить данной программе.

2) Во многих старых системах программист отвечал за разбиение программы на сегменты и за обеспечение инструкций, которые загружают  необходимые сегменты в основную память по мере надобности.

3) Корневой сегмент должен быть загружен в основную память одновременно с сегментами, необходимыми  для запуска программы.

4) В этом случае  необходимо разбить программу на секции, сегменты, или оверлеи, так как не следует загружать программу полностью в основную память.

5) Многие программы  слишком большие, чтобы уместиться в пространство основной памяти, которая может быть распределена на них во время выполнения.

5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) It becomes necessary to break the program up _____ sections, segments, or overlays so that the entire program need not be in main memory at the same time.

2) In many old systems, the programmer had the responsibility _____ breaking the program into overlays.

3) The user could name the overlays so that all symbolic addresses _____ an overlay would automatically be tagged _____ a special identifier.

4) A loader or linker created an object program organized as a set ____overlays and a root segment containing information ______ the overlay structure.

5) Many programs are too long to fit _____ the space in main memory that can be allocated to them ____run time.

6) The root segment would be loaded _____ main memory along _____ the segments needed to get the program started.

7) Any reference to a symbolic address in a segment not in main memory would cause a call ____ the supervisor to load ____ the required segment.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

Amount of, in either case, to fit into, used for, responsibility for, be tagged with, belonged to, a set of, to load into, along with, reference to, call on, information about.

7) Make a summary of this text.

Unit  3.

1) Read the text.

ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS (Introduction)

In the early years of electronic computing, applications were classified simply as either "scientific" or "business." The essence of the distinction was that scientific applications involved substantial arithmetic operations on rather small volumes of data, whereas business applications involved modest arithmetic operations on substantial amounts of data. Internal computer speed (CPU instruction cycle time and memory access time) was the crucial variable in scientific computing applications, while input and output speed and versatility (punched card input-output (I/O), printed output, magnetic tape I/O, disk I/O, etc.) were the crucial variables in business data processing. The two types of applications were called "CPU-intensive" (sometimes "CPU-bound") or "input-output-intensive" ("I/O-bound"). Matrix inversion was "typical" of scientific applications, and insurance company premium transactions processing was "typical" of business applications. With the passage of time and with the pervasive evolution of computer applications, the original two-category distinction no longer sufficed.

First, government transactions processing grew no less rapidly than did business transactions processing, as government agencies, like the US Social Security Administration, established pioneering large-scale government administrative applications that were strikingly similar to business applications. This led to the recognition that the term "administrative" applications was a more descriptive term than "business" applications, since both the private and public sectors "administer," while only the private sector does "business" in the commercial sense of the word.

Second, these simple classifications fell by the wayside with the establishment of other significant varieties of computer applications, such as process control, information retrieval, voice and message switching, and advanced technical applications such as computer-aided design and computer-assisted instruction (CAI).

Today, administrative applications are widely considered to be those that involve the use of computers for processing information in support of the operational, logistical, and functional activities performed by all organizations, and may be classified in a number of different ways. One is by organization type, e.g. banking, insurance, manufacturing, and government (which may be further subdivided into many different categories, such as defense, education, revenue, health services, etc.), among others. Another is by type of function (e.g. accounting, budgeting, payroll, property control, and many others).

This article describes the evolution and growth of administrative applications, the organization of data processing activity, and the increasingly complex administrative processing environment of the late 1990s and into the next millennium.

2) Study the word combinations:

the essence of the distinction - сущность различия

substantial arithmetic operations – основные арифметические операции

business applications - бизнес-приложения (приложения для деловой сферы)

internal computer speed - внутреннее быстродействие компьютера

crucial variable - ключевая переменная

versatility – многосторонность

premium transactions - сделки оплаты

pervasive evolution - повсеместная эволюция

processing grew - обработка росла

large-scale government - крупномасштабное управление

strikingly similar - поразительно аналогичный

descriptive term – содержательный термин

commercial sense – коммерческий смысл

wayside - придорожная полоса, обочина

significant varieties of computer applications - значимые ряды компьютерных приложений

information retrieval – сбор информации

computer-aided design - автоматизированное проектирование

computer-assisted instruction - автоматизированная инструкция

payroll - платежная ведомость

revenue – доход

complex administrative processing environment - сложная административная среда обработки

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) What information or ideas do you have about administrative applications?

2) How were applications of electronic computing classified?

3) What was the internal computer speed?

4) How were the two types of applications called?

5) What did the original two-category distinction no longer suffice with?

6)  What government agency is US Social Security Administration?

7) What is a CAI?

8) What are administrative applications widely considered being today?

9) Which processes does this article describe?

3) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Внутреннее быстродействие компьютера было критически важно в научных приложениях, тогда как скорость ввода/вывода и универсальность были критически важными в обработке деловой информации.

2) Инверсия  матриц была "типичной" для научных приложений, а обработка сделок оплаты страховых компаний была "типичной" для деловых приложений.

3) На заре эры электронной обработки приложения классифицировались просто как "научные" или "деловые”.

4) Сегодня административные приложения широко рассматриваются, как приложения, которые включают в себя использование компьютеров для обработки информации в операционной, логической и функциональной деятельности, выполняемой всеми организациями, и могут быть классифицированы на множество других путей.

5) Эта статья описывает эволюцию и рост административных приложений, организацию деятельности обработки данных, и возрастающую сложность административных задач в конце 1990-х и в следующем тысячелетии.

6) Эта простая классификация более не использовалась с созданием других значимых типов компьютерных приложений, связанных, например, с управлением процессами, сбором информации, коммутацией голоса и сообщений, и передовых технических приложений, таких, как автоматизированное проектирование и автоматизированная инструкция.

4) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) The essence _____ distinction was that scientific applications involved substantial arithmetic operations _____ rather small volumes of data, whereas business applications involved modest arithmetic operations _____ substantial amounts of data.

2) With the passage _____ time and with the pervasive evolution _____ computer applications, the original two-category distinction no longer sufficed.

3) These simple classifications fell _____ the wayside with the establishment _____ other significant varieties of computer applications, such as process control, information retrieval, voice and message switching.

4) Today, administrative applications are widely considered to be those that involve the use ______ computers for processing information in support _____ the operational, logistical, and functional activities performed by all organizations, and may be classified ______ a number of different ways.

5) This article describes the evolution and growth ______ administrative applications, the organization of data processing activity, and the increasingly complex administrative processing environment ______ the late 1990s and into the next millennium.

5) Make sentences using these expressions:

Classified in, essence of, variable in, evolution of, similar to, considered to, performed by, type of, environment of.

6) Make a summary of this text.

Unit 4.

1) Read the text.

AIKEN, HOWARD

Howard Hathaway Aiken was born 8 March 1900, in Hoboken, NJ, and died 14 March 1973, in St Louis, MO. He grew up in Indianapolis, where he attended Arsenal Technical High School while working 12 hours a night at the Indianapolis Light and Heat Company. Upon graduation he went to work for the Madison (Wisconsin) Gas Company, a position that allowed him to go to the University of Wisconsin. He received his B.A. degree in 1923 and was immediately promoted to chief engineer at Madison Gas.

In 1935 he returned to study, first at the University of Chicago and then at Harvard. His doctoral thesis at Harvard, resulting in a Ph.D. in 1939, was on the theory of space charge conduction. The research required laborious calculations of nonlinear differential equations. This experience led him to investigate the possibility of performing these types of calculations with machine assistance. His thoughts on this subject led him in 1937 to circulate a memo entitled, "Proposed Automatic Calculating Machine" (reprinted in Spectrum, August 1964, 62-69).

Harvard was not the most likely environment to get support for this type of research. Fortunately, Harvard professors Ted Brown (Business) and Harlow Shapley (Astronomy) were impressed with his work, and both knew of the interest of Thomas Watson Sr. in projects of this nature. With their encouragement, and the knowledge that IBM had the necessary technology, Aiken approached Watson. A contract was signed in 1939 whereby IBM would build the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I). The machine was running in 1944, and Aiken and Grace Hopper described it in a paper in Electrical Engineering (Vol. 65, 1946, 384-391, 449-454, 522-528; reprinted in Rendell, 1982).

The Mark I was followed by the Mark II (a relay machine built for the US Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, VA, and completed in 1946), the Mark III (an electronic machine, also for Dahlgren, completed in 1950), and the Mark IV (an electronic machine built for and delivered to the US Air Force in 1952). With the completion of Mark IV, Aiken got out of the business of building computers.

It is difficult to evaluate precisely the impact of Aiken's series of machines and the Harvard Computation Laboratory, which he founded. Fortunately, the documents are available to anyone interested. One need only look at the log books of the computation lab for this period to see the worldwide range of people who visited the laboratory. Another source of Aiken's work is the many publications in the "Annals of the Harvard Computation Laboratory" series. The Harvard catalog also provides clear evidence of the existence of courses in "computer science" a decade before the emergence of this program at most universities.

In 1947 and again in 1949 Aiken organized symposia on large-scale digital devices at Harvard. Programs from both meetings strongly reflect his hand and his philosophy at that time. Perhaps his most profound impact was in the environment he created at Harvard, which enabled the University to become a vital training ground for many people who became outstanding in the field. A perusal of those who did their doctoral dissertations under his direction is an excellent example of this impact.

Aiken retired from Harvard in 1961 and moved to Fort Lauderdale, FL, where he formed Aiken Industries. He also joined the faculty of the University of Miami as Distinguished Professor of Information Technology. In this latter position, he helped the University develop a computer science program and design a computing center.

His honors include honorary degrees (University of Wisconsin, Wayne State University, and Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt), prizes (Rochlitz Prize, Edison Medal of IEEE, the John Price Award of the Franklin Institute) as well as medals from both the US (Air Force and Navy for distinguished service) and other governments (Sweden, Belgium, France, and Spain).

Howard Aiken felt that he had to be continuously involved in challenging endeavors in order to stay alive both physically and intellectually. His career is a document of that creed. Some of his detractors accused him of living in the past, but nothing could be further from the truth. He was a man of rare vision, whose insights have had a profound effect on the entire computing profession.

2) Study the word combinations:

chief engineer - главный инженер

doctoral thesis - докторская диссертация

space charge conduction - космическая электропроводность платы

laborious calculations of nonlinear differential equations- трудоемкие вычисления нелинейных дифференциальных уравнений

differential equations - дифференциальные уравнения

machine assistance - машинная помощь

to circulate a memo entitled – опубликовать сообщение, озаглавить

whereby - посредством чего

completion of - завершение

to evaluate precisely - оцениваться точно

impact of – влияние

log books - регистрационные журналы

worldwide range - всемирный диапазон

clear evidence - ясное подтверждение

digital devices - цифровые устройства

to reflect – отражаться

profound impact - глубокое влияние

a training ground – тренировочная площадка

a perusal of - прочтение

challenging endeavors - вызывающие попытки

detractor - клеветник, очернитель

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) Who is Aiken Howard?

2) Where and when did Howard receive his B.A. degree?

3) Where did he grow up?

4) Which universities did he study at?

5) What was his doctoral thesis resulting in a Ph.D. about?

6) What did his research require?

7) Who were impressed with his work?

8) What do you know about IBM?

9) When was a contract with IBM signed?

10) Who was the machine “Harvard Mark I” described by?

11) Which of Howard’s machines was built for US Air Force?

12) Where can we find out about Howard’s series of machines?

13) What sources of Howard’s work do you know?

14) Where and when did Howard organize symposia on large-scale digital devices?

15) When did Howard retire?

16) Where did he form “Aiken Industries”?

17) Who did help him in his latter position?

18) What honorary degrees, prizes, and medals did he get?

19) What is his career?

4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Он получил степень бакалавра в 1923 и немедленно был повышен до должности главного инженера в Madison Gas.

2) Исследование требовало кропотливых вычислений нелинейных дифференциальных уравнений.

3) Каталог Гарварда также обеспечивает ясное подтверждение существования курсов в "информатике"  за десятилетие до возникновения этой программы в других университетах.

4) Эйкен ушел в отставку из Гарварда в 1961 и перешел в Fort Lauderdale, где он сформировал Aiken Industries.

5) Он был человеком редкого виденья, чьи взгляды имели важное значение для всей сферы деятельности, связанной с компьютингом

6) Возможно, наиболее глубокое влияние Эйкина было в среде, созданной им в Гарварде, позволившей Университету стать живой тренировочной площадкой  для многих людей, которые становились выдающимися в  этой области.

5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) Upon graduation he went to work _____ the Madison (Wisconsin) Gas Company, a position that allowed him to go _____ the University of Wisconsin.

2) His doctoral thesis _____ Harvard, resulting _____ a Ph.D. in 1939, was on the theory of space charge conduction.

3) Harvard was not the most likely environment to get support _____ this type of research.

4) With the completion _____ Mark IV, Aiken got _________ the business of building computers.

5) The Harvard catalog also provides clear evidence of the existence _____ courses in "computer science" a decade before the emergence of this program _____ most universities.

6) Aiken retired _______ Harvard in 1961 and moved _____ Fort Lauderdale, FL, where he formed Aiken Industries.

7) He helped ______ the University develop a computer science program and design a computing center.

8) Howard Aiken felt that he had to be continuously involved _____ challenging endeavors _____ order to stay alive both physically and intellectually.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

Work for, promote to, support for, be impressed with, delivered to, impact of, to be outstanding in, to retire from.

7) Make a summary of this text.

Unit 5

1) Read the text.

ALGOL

The driving concern in the development of the programming language Algol was to establish a notation for programs that would be a suitable carrier of algorithms and programs among computers of different types and capabilities.

Algol was the result of a collaboration of American and European committees. When the work was initiated in 1956, the computing scene in Europe was still dominated by one-of-a-kind computers, while in the USA the most commonly used computers were from manufacturers' standard series.

The problems of designing adequate programs were becoming acute everywhere. One approach to overcoming these problems was to replace the cumbersome machine languages by more convenient notations. The selection of such notations was guided by the applications of computers in science and engineering that dominated the early years of their invention, namely, solving the problems of mathematical analysis by techniques developed in numerical analysis. Numerical techniques build principally on operands of programs that are numerals in floating-point form. Thus programming notations came to be inspired by the algebraic notations that had a long tradition in mathematical analysis. Experiments with using such notations for programs were being made in many places.

Another approach to alleviating the problems of programming was to organize collections of subroutines for common processes, which were parameterized so as to allow them to be included in complete programs. Libraries of subroutines had in fact long been established around computer installations.

The idea of establishing a programming notation that would be equally suitable in programming computers of different makes and types and for exchange of programs was first proposed in Europe in 1955, and became the subject of a working group of GAMM (Gesellschaft fiir angewandte Mathematik und Mech-anik). In 1957 this group joined a similar effort conducted within ACM. In June 1958 a GAMM-ACM working conference in Zurich worked out a proposal, later known as the Zurich Report or Algol 58, for an algebraic programming language designed for use in programming a variety of computers, as well as for describing algorithms in publications.

The Zurich Report gave rise to intense public discussion. As a result, a 13-person committee met in Paris in January 1960, where a new version of the language, Algol 60, was discussed and agreed upon. Some minor corrections to Algol 60 were published in the Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 in 1962.

The problems discussed and solved during the development of Algol were those that were imposed by the aim that the resulting notation would be suitable both for wide communication and for programming of many different computers. This implied the requirements that both the meaning of the computational processes described in the notation and the description of the notation itself would be clear and unambiguous, using forms of description that would make computer-independent sense and that would support implementation equivalently across a range of computers of different makes and types.

An induced requirement was that, for reasons of expediency, the computational processes made available to the user of the notation had to allow effective description in brief terms. This requirement led to another, namely that mechanisms made available to the user of the notation had, as far as possible, to be describable in terms of a few rules that were generally valid, without exceptions.

The first proposal for the language, Algol 58, solved many of the problems. It introduced the idea that there would be three representations of the language (reference, publication, and hardware), such that the meaning of texts expressed in the language would only be defined in terms of the reference representation, while the typographical forms used in the publication and hardware representations were left to be chosen by users and implementers. …

2) Study the word combinations:

collaboration of - сотрудничество

driving concern – движущая цель

initiated in – начат в

one-of-a-kind - необычный, своеобразный

dominated by – под власть

adequate programs - требуемые программы

acute – острый

cumbersome - громоздкий, объемистый

operands of programs - операнды программ

floating-point - плавающая-точка

subroutines for - подпрограммы для

imposed by - навязан

computational processes - вычислительные процессы

unambiguous - однозначный

an induced requirement - порожденное требование

expediency - целесообразность

notation - нотация, система обозначений

to be describable in – иметь возможность быть описанным в

hardware - аппаратные средства

be defined in - определен в

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) What is Algol?

2) What was Algol result of?

3) What were the problems of designing?

4) How were these problems solved?

5) What were numerical techniques build principally on?

6) What was another approach to alleviating the problems?

7) Where was exchange of programs first proposed?

8) What was the subject of a working group of GAMM?

9) How can you describe Algol 58?

10) Where and when was a new version Algol 60 discussed, agreed upon?

11) What did the first proposal for the Algol 58?

12) How were many of the problems solved?

            4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Algol являлся результатом сотрудничества Американских и Европейских комитетов.

2) Проблемы проектирования требуемых программ становились острыми везде.

3) Движущей целью разработки языка программирования Algol было установление условных обозначений (операторов) для программ, которые смогут быть подходящими носителями алгоритмов, и программ среди компьютеров различных типов и возможностей.

4) Таким образом, операторы программирования были вдохновлены алгебраическими операторами, которые имели длинную традицию в математическом анализе.

5) Библиотеки подпрограмм фактически надолго установились среди компьютерных инсталляций.

6) Проблемы, обсужденные и решенные во время разработки Algol, были вызваны целью - конечная нотация должна быть пригодной как для широкой связи, так и для программирования многих разных компьютеров.

5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) One approach _____ overcoming these problems was to replace the cumbersome machine languages _____ more convenient notations.

2) Thus programming notations came to be inspired _____ the algebraic notations that had a long tradition _____ mathematical analysis. Experiments with using such notations for programs were being made _____ many places.

3) The selection of such notations was guided _____ the applications of computers _____ science and engineering that dominated the early years of their invention, namely, solving the problems of mathematical analysis _____ techniques developed in numerical analysis.

4) The idea _____ establishing a programming notation that would be equally suitable ___ programming computers of different makes and types and for exchange of programs was first proposed in Europe.

5) In 1957 this group joined ____ a similar effort conducted _____ ACM.

6) Some minor corrections _____ Algol 60 were published _____ the Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 in 1962.

7) This requirement led to another, namely that mechanisms made available ____ the user of the notation had, as far as possible, to be describable _____ terms of a few rules that were generally valid, without exceptions.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

A notation for, be dominated by, be initiated in, scene in, be guided by, analysis by, be developed in, to be inspired by, suitable in, exchange of, be proposed in, be conducted within, corrections to, proposal for, be defined in, to be chosen by,  to be describable in.

7) Make a summary of this text.

Unit 6.

1) Read the text.

ALGORITHMICS

Algorithmics is the systematic study of algorithms — how to devise them, describe them, validate them, and compare their relative merits. As the study of algorithms, algorithmics might be deemed a synonym for computer science. And, to be sure, "algorithmics" appears in the names of an increasing number of computer science courses, journals, books, research groups, and consulting firms. However, the term is perhaps still used primarily by mathematicians and mathematics educators, for whom it connotes an approach to mathematics where the study of the calculations by which answers are obtained is as important as determining that answers exist. This is quite different from the approach to mathematics during most of the twentieth century. At the school level, there was much doing of algorithms, but in a rote way. At the university level, the emphasis was on the existence and structure of mathematical objects. But now, with computers, such large and complicated problems are tackled that it is natural to be more systematic about the methodology for computing answers. Thus, algorithmics means not only being explicit about the use of algorithms to do mathematics (for instance, by using algorithmic language (i.e. pseudocode) to describe solution methods), but it also means regarding algorithms themselves as worthy objects of mathematical study.

Algorithmics is usually divided into three parts: design, verification, and analysis. Design is the process of creating algorithms and the study of good creation approaches (for instance, reducing to smaller cases and top-down planning). Verification is proving algorithms correct; the primary technique is mathematical induction, often expressed in terms of loop invariants. Analysis is the determination of the efficiency of an algorithm (how long it takes to run as a function of input size, or how much memory is required) and, when more than one algorithm is known to solve a problem, a comparison of their relative efficiencies. Better yet, but usually quite difficult, is to determine or at least bound the optimal efficiency for any method that solves the problem at hand. Determining the optimum over all algorithms for a problem is called determining the computational complexity of the problem. …

2) Study the word combinations

to devise – изобретать, разрабатывать

validate - проверять достоверность; подтверждать правильность

relative merits - относительные достоинства

to be deemed - считаться

it connotes - означает

a rote way – путем зубрежки

the emphasis - акцент

be tackled – быть поднятым, быть начатым

to be explicit - быть явным, выявлять

regarding - относительно; касательно

worthy - соответствующий, подобающий, достойный

verification - проверка правильности выполнения операции

top-down - нисходящий; сверху вниз

loop invariants - инвариант цикла

efficiencies – эффективность, производительность

bound - граница; предел, предельное значение

computational complexity - вычислительная сложность число шагов или арифметических операций, требуемых для решения вычислительной проблемы

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) How can you describe Algorithmics?

2) What might algorithmics be as the study of algorithmics?

3) What differences were at the school lever and university level of the term “algorithmics”? And now?

4) What does algorithmics mean?

5) How many parts is algorithmics usually divided?

6) What do you know about design?

7) What is verification?

8) How can you explain and analysis?

4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Это отличается от подхода к математике в течение большей части двадцатого столетия.

2) На университетском уровне акцент был на существовании и структуре математических объектов.

3) Алгоритмирование обычно разделяется на три части: проектирование, проверка и анализ.

4) Определение оптимального алгоритма решения задачи среди всех алгоритмов называется определением вычислительной сложности задачи.

5) Алгоритмирование - систематическое исследование алгоритмов – связано с разработкой алгоритмов, их  описанием, подтверждением и сравнением их относительных достоинств.

6) Теперь с появлением компьютеров такие большие и сложные проблемы решаются легче, естественнее и систематичнее в смысле  методологии вычисления ответов.

5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) This is quite different _____ the approach to mathematics _____ most of the twentieth century.

2) With computers, such large and complicated problems are tackled that it is natural to be more systematic ______ the methodology for computing answers.

3) Verification is proving algorithms correct; the primary technique is mathematical induction, often expressed _____ terms of loop invariants.

4) As the study of algorithms, algorithmics might be deemed a synonym _____ computer science.

5) Analysis is the determination _____ the efficiency of an algorithm and, when more than one algorithm is known to solve a problem, a comparison _____ their relative efficiencies.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

Be deemed for, appears in, approach to, different from, systematic about, be explicit about, divide into, expressed in, comparison of, function of, at hand.

            Unit 7.

1) Read the text.

Analog Computer: The End of an Era

Analog and hybrid computers were generally phased out during the late 1970s. Most users realized they faced the end of an era, brought on by the ever-increasing speed, power, and memory capacity of digital computers. By the late 1970s it was obvious that soon digital solutions would be faster—and considerably more accurate and convenient to use—than even high-speed analog or hybrid computers were. The old axiom that "... when digital computers are programmed to solve equations as fast as analogs, they are less accurate; and when programmed to be as accurate, digital computers are much slower," was no longer true.

The paradigm shift occurred with the advent of digital computer programs and special programming languages. These made it possible to use Kelvin's method of successive integrations on a digital computer. The Continuous System Modeling Program (CSMP) for IBM computers, the SIMSCRIPT language and a number of others opened a new era and allowed users to solve sets of differential equations with ease and accuracy.

One advance that made this possible was the development of integration algorithms that delivered accurate numerical solutions. With these methods complex sets of differential equations are now solved as effortlessly and accurately as arithmetic equations so that there is a very limited market for electronic analog computers to solve such problems. Thus, the development has, in a way, come full circle. Lord Kelvin’s "feedback" method of successive numerical integrations, pioneered in 1876, is now in general use on digital computers but with little recognition given to its deep significance.

2) Study the word combinations:

to phase out - постепенно прекращать, свертывать

ever-increasing - возрастающий

convenient - удобный

obvious - очевидный, явный, ясный

old axiom - старая аксиома

equations - уравнения

paradigm shift - изменение парадигмы

advent of digital computer – наступление, приход цифровой вычислительной машины

successive integrations - последующая интеграция

effortlessly - без усилий; без напряжения

full circle - полный круг

feedback - обратная связь

pioneered in - впервые исследован в

significance – значение

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1)  What differences are between analog and digital computer?

2)  When did analog and hybrid comps started to be phased out?

3)  What was obvious about digital solutions by the late 1970s?

4)  How true was old axiom?

5)  What did it make possible to use Kelvin’s method of successive integrations on a digital comp?

6)  Which programs, languages did it make open a new era and allow users to solve sets of differential equations with case and accuracy?

7) When was Lord Kelvin’s “feedback” method of successive numerical integrations pioneered ?

4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Большинство пользователей поняли, что они стояли перед концом эры, принесенным постоянно увеличивающейся скоростью, мощностью и вместимостью памяти цифровых компьютеров.

2) Изменение парадигмы произошло с появлением программ компьютера и специальных языков программирования.

3) Прорыв, который сделал это возможным - развитие алгоритмов интегрирования, которые давали точные числовые решения.

4) В конце 1970-х гг. аналоговые и аналого-цифровые компьютеры постепенно выводились из обращения.

5) Программа Моделирования Непрерывной Системы (CSMP) для IBM компьютеров, язык SIMSCRIPT и множество других открыли новую эру и позволили пользователям решать системы дифференциальных уравнений с легкостью и точностью.

5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1) Most users realized they faced the end of an era, brought ____ by the ever-increasing speed, power, and memory capacity ____ digital computers.

2) The paradigm shift occurred _____ the advent _____ digital computer programs and special programming languages.

3) Analog and hybrid computers were generally phased _____ during the late 1970s.

4) One advance that made this possible was the development _____ integration algorithms that delivered accurate numerical solutions.

5) Lord Kelvin’s "feedback" method _____ successive numerical integrations, pioneered in 1876, is now in general use _____ digital computers but with little recognition given to its deep significance.

6) Make sentences using these expressions:

Phase out, bring on, capacity of, advent of, method of.

 Unit 8.

1) Read the text.

APPLE COMPUTER, INC. Apple's Beginnings

Twenty years after it was founded, Apple is no longer the major power it once was in personal computing. Apple was the first mainstream vendor of personal computers and is still an important player, setting the pace for ease of use and graphical interfaces, but Apple has become a niche player. The company was born out of the desire of two spirited innovators, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, who wanted to bring computing power to ordinary people.

With the microprocessor, the semiconductor industry had provided the compact, inexpensive electronic brain needed to build a personal-sized computer. But it was individual computer enthusiasts, not the established mainframe and minicomputer companies which took the next steps. Fascinated with the computers they designed and programmed by day, many young engineers longed to have their own computers on which to work and play at night. They avidly read the handful of available hobbyist magazines, formed clubs, and swapped ideas.

Stephen G. Wozniak was a regular attendee of the Homebrew Computer Club that began meeting in 1975 in Menio Park, CA, at the northern edge of what was already called Silicon Valley. Wozniak had become enthralled with computers in high school and had dropped out of the engineering program at the University of California, Berkeley, to work for Hewlett-Packard, a manufacturer of calculators and minicomputers. It was at a Homebrew meeting that Wozniak heard about the first personal computers that were being offered as mail-order kits.

By mid-1976, Wozniak, 26, had written a Basic programming language interpreter for a new microprocessor from MOS Technology, the 6502, and designed a computer to run it. Wozniak proudly passed out photocopies of his design to Homebrew friends and helped them build their own machines from the plans.

Steven P. Jobs, age 21 in 1976, shared Wozniak's passion for computers. The two had collaborated on several electronics projects, including creating the video game Breakout for Atari, Inc., where Jobs worked. Convinced of the marketability of Wozniak's design, Jobs persuaded his friend to sell the Apple I kits to other hobbyists.

They sold Jobs's Volkswagen van and Wozniak's programmable calculator to raise enough money to get started. Jobs then landed an order for 50 Apple I computers from one of the first computer retail stores in the country, and, on the strength of that order, the two young men secured credit at an electronic parts house. In the garage of Jobs's parents' home in Cupertino, CA, Apple Computer went into business.

"I had wanted a computer my whole life—that was the big thing in my life," Wozniak remembers. "All of a sudden I realized that microprocessors were cheap enough to let me build one myself. Steve [Jobs] went a little further. Steve saw it as a product that you could actually deliver and sell, and someone else could use."

Like all early personal computers, the Apple I was designed for experts who could put it together and write their own programs. But Jobs had a vision for Apple Computer that went far beyond the hobbyist market. He sought advice on realizing his goals from successful industry figures, such as Nolan Bushnell, founder of Atari; Don Valentine, a venture capitalist; Regis McKenna, who owned a rising Silicon Valley advertising and public relations agency; and A. C. "Mike" Markkula, who, at age 33, had retired from a lucrative marketing career at Intel.

Wozniak began designing a second computer that would be technically far superior to the Apple I, incorporating a keyboard, power supply, and the ability to generate color graphics, and to use the Basic programming language. Convinced that this product—the Apple II—would spark demand for personal computers beyond the hobbyist market, Mike Markkula wrote a business plan for the young company and then invested in it. He officially joined Apple when it incorporated in January 1977, and has since served in various executive positions, including president. Apple blossorned during that first year. It introduced the Apple II to rave reviews at the first West Coast Computer Faire. Markkula signed up dealers across the country to sell the Apple II. Regis McKenna's agency helped establish an immediate presence for Apple with an eye-catching rainbow logo, ads placed in national consumer publications, and a public relations campaign that leveraged Apple's "American dream" beginnings. An infusion of $3 million in venture capital gave Apple an enormous advantage over many of its struggling competitors. Apple finished its first fiscal year with $774,000 in sales and a $42,000 profit.

2) Study the word combinations:

mainstream vendor – господствующий, лидирующий продавец

the pace for ease  - темп для непринужденности

spirited innovators – энергичные, талантливые новаторы

the semiconductor industry - промышленность полупроводников

mainframe - универсальная ЭВМ, мэйнфрэйм

avidly – страстно

hobbyist magazines – любительские журналы

swap ideas - обмениваться идеями

attendee – посетитель

become enthralled with – приходить в восторг от

dropped out – покинувший

mail-order kits - комплекты заказа по почте

collaborated on - сотрудничавший в

convinced of - убежденный в

marketability - конкурентоспособность

van - фургон

a venture capitalist - капиталист предприятия, вкладчик капитала в рискованные предприятия

lucrative marketing - прибыльный маркетинг

incorporating – включающий

spark demand – возросший спрос

blossomed – расцветен

to rave reviews - взбудоражить обзоры

presence for - присутствие для

an eye-catching rainbow logo –логотип в виде привлекательной эмблемы радуги

campaign that leveraged - кампания, которая усиливала

infusion of – вливание

an enormous advantage - огромное преимущество

struggling competitors - борющиеся конкуренты

3) Translate the text and answer the questions.

1) What do you know about Apple computers?

2) How was the Apple Company born?

3) Who is Steve Wozniak?

4) Who was a regular attendee of the Homebrew Computer Club?

5) Can you tell us anything about Hewlett-Packard?

6) What did Wozniak have written by mid-1976?

7)  How old was Steven P. Job when he shared Wozniak’s passion for comps?

8) What did they do in order to raise enough money to get starter?

9) Where did Apple Computer go into business?

10) Who was Apple I designed for?

11) Who did write a business plan for the young company?

12) When did Mike Marcella officially join Apple?

13) What did Marcella do in order to sell the Apple II?

14) How much dollars did Apple finish it’s first fiscal year with? 

4) Translate the sentences from the text.

1) Apple было первым господствующим продавцом персональных компьютеров и - все еще важный игрок, устанавливающий темп для простоты использования и графических интерфейсов, но Apple стало игроком ниши.

2) Очарованные компьютерами, которые они проектировали и программировали днем, много молодых инженеров стремились иметь свои собственные компьютеры, чтобы работать и играть на них ночью.

3) Wozniak гордо раздавал фотокопии своего проекта Доморощенным друзьям и помог им строить их собственные машины из планов.

4) Как  и все ранние персональные компьютеры, Apple I был разработан для экспертов, которые могли соединить их вместе и написать собственные программы.

5) С микропроцессором, промышленность полупроводников обеспечила компактный, недорогой электронный мозг, который был необходим для построения компьютера персонального размера.

6) Они страстно читали горстку доступных любительских журналов, формировали клубы и обменивались идеями.

7) Именно на встрече Доморощенных Уозниак услышал о первых персональных компьютерах, которые предлагались как комплекты заказа по почте.

5)  Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.

1. The company was born _____ the desire of two spirited innovators, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, who wanted to bring computing power _____ ordinary people.

2. Wozniak had become enthralled _____ computers in high school and had dropped _____ of the engineering program at the University of California.

3. Steven P. Jobs, age 21 in 1976, shared Wozniak's passion _____ computers.

4. Convinced of the marketability ____ Wozniak's design, Jobs persuaded his friend to sell the Apple I kits ____ other hobbyists.

5. Jobs then landed an order _____ 50 Apple I computers from one of the first computer retail stores in the country.

6. Jobs had a vision ____ Apple Computer that went far beyond _____ the hobbyist market.

7. He officially joined ____ Apple when it incorporated in January 1977, and has since served _____ various executive positions, including president.

8. Marcella signed _____ dealers across the country to sell the Apple II.

9. The two had collaborated _____ several electronics projects, including creating the video game Breakout for Atari, Inc., where Jobs worked.

6) Make sentences using these expressions: