IT related English
LANGUAGE BASICS
Английский
язык
с уклоном на ИКТ
(Основы языка)
Учебное пособие по изучению английского языка
для преподавателей колледжей
Ташкент 2006
Данное учебное пособие разработано в рамках узбекско-немецкого проекта «Содействие профессиональному образованию» и предназначено для преподавателей колледжей по курсу «Английский язык, ориентированный на Информационные технологии». Пособие функционально содержит два блока: в первом блоке уроков, состоящем из 10 разделов, приведены материалы для обучения, представляющие курс грамматики английского языка; он позволяет повторить и закрепить навыки по английской грамматике, с наглядными примерами и объяснениями. Во втором блоке, состоящем из 10 разделов, представлен непосредственный практикум занятий по английскому языку, даны основы контроля и развития грамматических, лексических навыков; для работы подобраны тексты из оригинальной литературы по информационным технологиям, которые по тематике дополняют имеющиеся по этому направлению тексы. Работа над текстами рассчитана как на коллективно-групповой, так и на индивидуальный метод работы, в режиме взаимокорнтроля: переводы, грамматические упражнения, тексты и вопросы к ним.
Содержание
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1 |
Часть 1. Основы грамматики английского языка |
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Раздел 1. Использование настоящего времени |
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Unit 1. am/ is/ are
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Unit 2. am/ is/ are
(questions) |
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Unit 3. I am doing
(present continuous) |
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Unit 4. Are you -ing?
(Present Continuous questions) |
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Unit 5. I do/ work/ like
etc. (Present Simple) |
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Unit 6. I don’t … (Present Simple negative) |
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Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions) |
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Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I do (Present Simple) |
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Раздел 2. Использование прошедшего времени |
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Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/
went etc. (Past Simple) |
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Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …?
(Past Simple negative and questions) |
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Unit 11. was/ were
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Unit 12. I was doing …
(Past Continuous) |
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Unit 13. I was doing …
(Past Continuous) and I did … (Past Simple) |
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Unit 14. have/ has (got)
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Раздел 3. Использование настоящего совершенного времени |
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Unit 15. I have done …
(Present Perfect 1) |
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Unit 16. Have you ever …
(Present Perfect 2) |
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Unit 17. How long have you …
(Present Perfect 3) |
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Unit 18. for since ago |
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Unit 19. I have done …
(Present Perfect) and I did … (Past Simple) |
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Раздел 4. Использование страдательного залога |
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Unit 20. it is done/ it was done
(passive) |
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Раздел 5. Использование будущего времени |
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Unit 21. What are you doing
tomorrow? (Present for the future) |
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Unit 22. I’m going to … |
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Unit 23. will/ shall (1) |
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Unit 24. will/ shall (2) |
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Раздел 6. Модальные глаголы |
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Unit 25. can and could |
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Unit 26. may and might |
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Unit 27. must |
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Unit 28. should |
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Unit 29. have to |
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Unit 30. Would you like …? |
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Раздел 7. Смысловые конструкции 1. Правильные и неправильные глаголы. |
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Unit 31. there is/ there are |
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Unit 32. there was/ were/ has been/ will be |
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Unit 33. it … |
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Unit 34. go/ going work/ working/ play/ playing etc. |
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Unit 35. be/ have/ do
in present and past tenses |
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Unit 36. Regular and irregular verbs |
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Unit 37. I am / I don’t etc. |
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Unit 38. Have you …? / Are you …? / Don’t you …? etc. |
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Unit 39. too / either so am I/ neither do I etc. Unit 40. Negatives: isn’t/ haven’t/ don’t etc. |
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Раздел 8. Образование вопросительных предложений |
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Unit 41. Questions (1) Is it …? Have you …? Do they …? etc. |
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Unit 42. Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see? |
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Unit 43. Questions (3) Who is she talking to? What is it like?
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Unit 44. What …? Which …? How …? |
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Unit 45. How long does it take? |
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Unit 46. Can you tell me where …? Do you know what …? etc. |
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Раздел 9. Смысловые конструкции 2. |
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Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing) |
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Unit 48. I want you to …/ I told you to … |
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Unit 49. He said that …/ He told me that … |
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Unit 50. I went to the shop to buy … |
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Unit 51. get |
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Unit 52. go |
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Раздел 10. Местоимения |
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Unit 53. I/me, he/ him, they/ them etc. |
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Unit 54. my/his/their etc.
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Unit 55. Whose is this? It’s mine. |
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Unit 56. I/me/my/mine |
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Unit 57. myself/yourself/himself etc. |
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Unit 58. -’s (Ann’s camera/my brother’s car etc.) |
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Раздел 11. Употребление артиклей и предлогов с именами существительными |
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Unit 59. Артиклиa/an
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Часть 2. Практикум по закреплению навыков. |
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Раздел 1. Работа с текстами |
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Unit 1. ACCESS METHODS |
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Unit 2. VIRTUAL MEMORY |
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Unit 3. ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS |
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Unit 4. AIKEN, HOWARD |
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Unit 5. ALGOL |
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Unit 6. ALGORITHMICS |
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Unit 7. Analog Computer: The End of an Era |
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Unit 8. APPLE COMPUTER, INC. Apple's Beginnings |
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Unit 9. APPLICATIONS PROGRAMMING |
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UNIT 1. The World of Telecommunication………………………....................... 4
Part I. Text and exercises ………………………………. 4
Part II. Dialogues………………………………………… 10
UNIT 2. Modern Computer………………....…………… 14
Part I. Text and exercises …………………….…………. 14
Lesson 1………………….………………………………… 14
Lesson 2………………………….………………………… 22
Part II. Dialogues…………………………………………… 29
Part III. Humor Page…………………………….……….. 39
UNIT 3. The Internet and Modern Life….……………. 44
Part I. Text and exercises ………………………….……. 44
Lesson 1…………………………….……………………… 44
Lesson 2……………………………….…………………… 52
Part II. Humor Page…………………………...………….. 60
Часть 1. Основы грамматики английского языка.
Раздел 1. Использование настоящего времени
Unit 1. am/ is/ are
(спряжение
глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе простого
настоящего времени)
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positive
|
negative
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- Can you close the
window, please? I'm cold.
- I'm 32 years old. My sister is 29.
- My brother is a policement. He's very tall.
- John is afraid of dogs.
- It's 10 o'clock. You're late again.
- Ann and I are very good friends.
- My shoes are very dirty. I must clean them.
- I'm tired but I'm not
hungry.
- Tom isn't interested in politics.
- Jane isn't at home at the moment. She's at
work.
- Those people aren't English. They're
Australian.
That's = that is There's =
there is Here's = here is
- Thank you. That's very kind of you.
- Look! There's George.
See Unit 2. am/ is/ are (questions)
Unit 2. am/ is/ are (questions)
(спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе
простого настоящего времени в вопросах)
See Unit 1.
am/ is/ are
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positive
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question
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- Is your mother
at home? No, she's out.
- Is it cold in your room? Yes, a little.
- Those shoes are nice. Are they new?
- Are books expensive in your country?
- How old is Joe? He's 24.
- What colour is your car? It's blue.
- Where are you from? Canada.
- How much are these postcards? They're 40
pence each.
what's = what is who's = who
is how's = how is where's
= where is
- What's the time?
- Where's Jill?
- Who's that man?
- How's your father?
short answer - positive
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short answer - negative
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- Are you tired? Yes,
I am.
- Are you hungry? No, I'm not but I'm
thirsty.
- Is he English? Yes, he is.
- Is Ann at work today? No, she isn't.
- Is this seat free? Yes, it is.
- Are these your shoes? Yes, they are.
- Am I late? No, you aren't.
Unit 3. I am doing
(Present Continuous)
(настоящее продолженное время)
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- She's eating.
She isn't reading.
- It's raining. The sun isn't shining.
- They're running. They aren't walking.
The Present Continuous Tense is:
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- Please be quiet. I'm
working. (= I'm working now)
- Look! Joy is wearing her new hat. (= she's
wearing it now)
- Don't go out now. It's raining.
- "Where are the children?" "They're playing
in the garden."
- (on the telephone) We're having dinner now.
Can you phone later?
- You can turn the television off. I'm not watching
it.
come - coming, smoke - smoking,
wtite - writing
run - running, sit - sitting,
swim - swimming
lie - lying, die - dying
See Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous
questions)
See Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous)
and I do (Present Simple)
See Unit 21. What are you doing tomorrow?
(Present for the Future)
Unit 4. Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)
(вопросительные предложения в настоящем продолженном времени)
See Unit 3. I am doing (Present Continuous)
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Are you feeling okay? Yes, I'm
feeling fine.
- Is it raining? Yes, take an umbrella.
- Why are you wearing a coat? It's not cold
today.
- What's Roy doing? He's
cooking the dinner.
- What are the children doing? They're
playing in the garden.
- Look! There's Jan. Where's she doing?
The word order in these questions is: |
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is/are |
+ |
subject |
+ |
-ing |
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Is |
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he |
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working today? |
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Is |
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Mr.Smith |
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working today? |
Where |
are |
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they |
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going? |
Where |
are |
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those people |
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going? (not Where are going those people?) |
positive
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negative
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-
Are you listening to the radio? Yes,
I am.
- Is Tom working today? Yes, he is.
- Is it raining? No, it isn't.
- Are your friends staying at a hotel? No, they aren't.
Unit 5. I do/ work/ like
etc. (Present Simple)
(спряжение глаголов в простом настоящем времени)
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They have a lot of
books. |
He's eating an ice-cream. |
They read/ I like/ he likes etc. = The Present Simple
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Remember:
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-es after -s/ -ch/ -sh |
pass → pases |
watch → watches |
finish → finishes |
also: |
do → does |
go → goes |
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study → studies |
carry → carries |
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We use the Present Simple for things
that are true in general, or for things that happen sometimes or all the time:
- I like big cities.
- The shops open at 9 o'clock and close at 5:30.
- He works very hard. He starts at 7:30 and finishes at 8 o'clock in the evening.
- The Earth goes round the Sun.
- We do a lot of different things in our free time.
- She's very clever. She speaks four languages.
- It costs a lot of money to stay at luxury hotels.
We use the Present Simple with always/ never/ often/
sometimes/ usually:
- He always gets up at 7 o'clock.
- I usually go to work by car but I sometimes walk.
- Jack eats very little. He never has
breakfast in the morning.
- The weather here is not very good. It often rains.
See Unit 6.
I don't … (Present
Simple negative)
See Unit 7.
Do you …? (Present
Simple questions)
See Unit 8.
I am doing (Present
Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)
See Unit 88.
Word order (2)
Unit 6. I don't …
(Present Simple negative)
(Отрицательные формы глаголов в простом настоящем времени)
See Unit 5. I do/ work/ like etc. (Present
Simple)
The Present Simple negative is don't/ doesn't + verb
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She doesn't smoke. |
He doesn't work. |
positive
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negative
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- I drink coffee but I don't
drink tea.
- Sue drinks tea but she doesn't drink
coffee.
- You don't speak English very well.
- They don't watch television very often.
- Rice doesn't grow in the cold countries.
- We don't know many people in this town.
We use don't/ doesn't + infinitive (like/ do/
speak/ work etc.):
- I don't like washing the car. I don't do it
very often.
- She speaks Spanish but she doesn't speak
Italian. (not she doesn't speaks)
Remember:
I/ we/ you/ they |
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don't |
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I don't like football. |
he/ she/ it |
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doesn't |
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He doesn't like football. |
-
I don't like Fred and Fred doesn't like me. (not Fred
don't like)
- My car doesn't use much petrol. (not my car don't
use)
- Sometimes he is late but it doesn't happen very often.
See Unit 7. Do
you …? (Present Simple questions)
Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple questions)
(Вопросительные предложения в простом настоящем времени)
See Unit 5.
I do/ work/ like etc.
(Present Simple)
See Unit 6.
I don't … (Present
Simple negative)
We use do/does in Present Simple questions:
positive
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question
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The word order in these questions is: |
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do/does |
+ subject |
+ |
infinitive |
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Do |
you |
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work |
on Saturdays? |
Where |
do |
your parents |
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live? |
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Do |
they |
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like |
music? |
How often |
do |
you |
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wash |
your hair? |
What |
do |
you |
usually |
do |
at weekends? |
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Does |
Chris |
often |
play |
tennis? |
How much |
does |
it |
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cost |
to fly to Rome? |
What |
does |
this word |
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mean? |
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What do you do? = What's your job?:
- What do you do? I work in a bank.
Remember:
do |
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I/ we/ you/ they |
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- |
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Do they like music? |
does |
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he/ she/ it |
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- |
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Does he like music? |
short answers
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- Do you smoke? No,
I don't.
- Do they speak English? Yes, they do.
- Does he work hard? Yes, he does.
- Does your sister live in London? No, she doesn't.
See Unit 8.
I am doing (Present
Continuous) and I do (Present Simple)
Unit 8. I am doing (Present Continuous) and I
do (Present Simple)
(Смысловое различие предложений с глаголами в простом и продолженном
настоящем времени)
See Unit 3. I am doing (Present Continuous)
See Unit 4.
Are you -ing?
(Present Continuous questions)
See Unit 5.
I do/ work/ like etc.
(Present Simple)
See Unit 6.
I don't … (Present
Simple negative)
See Unit 7.
Do you …? (Present
Simple questions)
Jim is watching
television. |
|
Is he playing the guitar? No, he isn't. (Present
Continuous)
Does he play the guitar? Yes, he does. (Present
Simple)
Present Continuous (I am doing) - now, at the time of
speaking:
- Please be quiet. I am
working.
- Tom is having a shower at the moment.
- Take an umbella. It's raining.
- You can turn off the television. I'm not watching it.
- Why are you under the table? What are you doing?
Present Simple (I do) - in general, all the time or
sometimes:
- I work every day from 9 o'clock until 5.00.
- Tom has a shower every morning.
- It rains a lot in winter.
- I don't watch television very often.
- What do you ususally do at the weekend?
Do not use these verbs in the present continuous (I am -ing):
want like love hate
need prefer depend know
mean understand believe remember
forget
Use the Present Simple only (I want/do you like? etc.):
- I'm tired. I want to go home. (not I'm wanting)
- Do you know that girl? Yes, but I forget
her name.
- I don't understand. What do you mean?
Раздел 2. Использование прошедшего времени
Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
(простое прошедшее время)
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The Past Simple is often -ed.
For
example:
word - worked |
clean - cleaned |
start - started |
stay - stayed |
live - lived |
dance - danced |
These verbs are regular
verbs.
- I clean my teeth every morning. This morning I cleaned my teeth.
- Terry worked
in a bank from 1981 to 1986.
- Yesterday it rained
all morning. It stopped
at launchtime.
- We enjoyed
the party last night. We danced
a lot and talked
to a lot of people.
- The party
finished
at midnight.
study - studied |
marry - married |
stop - stopped |
plan - planned |
Some verbs are irregular
(not regular). The Past Simple is not
-ed.
Here are some important irregular verbs
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- I usually get up early but this morning I got up at 9.30.
- We did
a lot of housework yesterday.
- Caroline went
to the cinema three times last week.
- Mr Todd came
into the room, took
off this coat and sad
down.
See Unit 10. I didn't… Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
Unit 10. I didn't … Did you
…? (Past Simple
negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)
See Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
We use did
in Past Simple negatives and questions:
infinitive
|
positive
|
negative
|
question
|
do/does
(Present) - did (Past):
- I don't
watch television very often.
- I didn't
watch television yesterday.
- Does
she often go out?
- Did
she go out last night?
We use did/didn't
+ infinitive (watch/ clean/do
etc.):
I watched |
but |
I didn't watch |
(not
I didn't watched) |
- I played
tennis yesterday but I didn't
win.
- Don didn't have
breakfast this morning. (not
Don hadn't breakfast)
- They went
to the cinema but they didn't
enjoy the film.
- We didn't do
much work yesterday.
Note the word order in questions with did:
|
did
|
+ subject
|
+ infinitive
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|
short answers
short answer - positive
|
short answer - negative
|
- Did you see Joe
yesterday? No, I
didn't.
- Did it
rain on Sunday? Yes,
it did.
- Did Helen
come to the party? No,
she didn't.
- Did your friends
have a good holiday? Yes,
they did.
Unit 11. was/ were
(спряжение глагола "to be" в единственном и множественном числе
простого прошедшего времени)
|
Now Charlie is
at work. |
am/is
(present) - was (past):
- I am
tired. |
I was
tired last night. |
are (present) - were (past):
- You are
late (now). |
You were
late yesterday. |
positive
|
negative
|
question
|
- Last year she was
22, so she is
23 now.
- When I was
a child, I was
afraid of dogs.
- We were
tired after the journey but we weren't
hungry.
- The hotel was
very comfortable and it wasn't
expensive.
- Where were
you at 3 o'clock yesterday afternoon?.
- Was
the weather good when you were
on holiday?
- Those shoes are nice. Were they expensive?
- Why was
he angry yesterday?
short answers
short answer - positive
|
short answer - negative
|
-
Were you late? No,
I wasn't.
- Was Ted
at work yesterday? Yes,
he was.
- Were they
at the party? No, they weren't.
Unit 12. I was doing
(Past Continuous)
(прошедшее продолженное время)
Now it is 6 o'clock. |
|
|
was/ were -ing
(doing/
playing/
working
etc.) is the Past
Continuous tense:
positive
|
negative
|
question
|
- What were
you doing
at 11.30 yesterday? I was
working.
- What did he say? I don't know. I wasn't
listening.
- It was
raining,
so we didn't go out.
- In 1980 they were
living
in Canada.
- Today she's wearing a skirt, but yesterday she was wearing trousers.
- I woke up early yesterday. It was a beautiful morning. The sun was shining and the birds were singing.
am/ is/ are -ing
(Present) - was/ were -ing (Past):
- I'm
working
(now). |
I was
working
at 10.30 last night. |
See Unit 13. I was doing (Past Continuous) and I did (Past Simple)
Unit 13. I was doing … (Past
Continuous) and I did … (Past Simple)
(смысловое различие предложений в простом и продолженном прошедшем времени)
|
What happened?
The phone rang.
(Past Simple)
What was Jack doing
when the phone rang?
He was reading
a book. (Past Continuous)
What did he do
when the phone rang?
He stopped
reading and answered
the phone. (Past Simple)
Jack began reading before
the phone rang. So:
When
the phone rang, he was
reading.
|
- Jack was reading the
newspaper when the phone rang.
but Jack read the newspaper yesterday.
- Were you watching
television when I phoned you?
but Did
you watch the film on television last night?
- I started work at 9.00 and finished at 4.30. At 2.30 I was working.
- When we went out, it was raining. (= it started raining before we went out)
- I saw Lucy and Tom this
morning. They were standing
at the bus-stop.
- Joy fell asleep while she was reading.
Unit 14. have/ has (got)
(использование have/has и have/has got)
You can say have or have got, has or has got:
|
- I've
got blue eyes. (or
I have got
blue eyes.)
- Tim has got
two sisters. (or
Tim has
two sisters.)
- They like animals. They've
got a horse, three dogs and six cats.
- This car has got
four doors.
- I don't feel very well. I've got
a headache.
negative
|
question
|
short answers
|
- I've got
a motor-bike but I have't
got a car.
- Mr and Mrs Harrison haven't
got any children.
- It's a nice house but it hasn't
got a garden.
- "Have you got
a camera?" "Yes,
I have"
- "What have you
got in your bag?" "Nothing. It's empty."
- "Has Ann got
a car?" "Yes,
she has".
- What kind of car has
she got?
In negatives and questions you can also use do/does + have:
- They don't have
any children. (= They haven't
got any children.)
- It's a nice house but it doesn't
have a garden. (= it hasn't
got a garden)
- Does
Ann got
a car? (= Has
Ann got
a car?)
- How much money do
you have?
(= How much money have
you got?)
The past is had.
In negatives and questions we use did
+ have
See Unit 9. I watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
See Unit 10. I
didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
Раздел 3. Использование настоящего совершенного времени
Unit 15. I have done (Present Perfect I)
(настоящее совершенное время 1)
|
|
|
|
|
|
has cleaned/ have gone
etc. is the Present
Perfect (have/
has + Past
Participle*):
|
|
We use the Present Perfect for an
action in the past with a result now:
- I've lost
my passport. (= I can't find my passport now)
- She's
(= she has) gone
to bed. (= she is in bed now)
- We've bought
a new car. (= we have a new car now)
- It's Kay's birthday tomorrow and I haven't
bought her a present.
- "Bob is on holiday." "Oh, where has he gone?"
- "Are they still having dinner?" "No, they've finished."
* The Past Participle of regular
verbs is -ed:
|
See Unit 16. Have you ever … (Present Perfect 2)
See Unit 17. How
long have you … (Present Perfect 3)
See Unit 19. I
have done … (Present Perfect) and I did … (Past
Simple)
Unit 16.
Have you ever …? (Present Perfect 2)
(настоящее совершенное время 2)
See Unit 15 I have done (Present Perfect 1)
|
We use the Present Perfect
have been/ have
played/ have done etc. when we talk about a time from the past
until now - for example, your life:
|
- "Have you been
to France?" (in your
life) "No, I haven't."
- I've been
to Canada but I haven't
been to the United States.
- She is an interesting person. She has
done many different jobs and has visited many countries.
- I've seen
that woman before but I can't remember when.
- How many times has Brazil won the World Cup?
- "Have you read
this book?" "Yes, I've
read it twice." (= two times)
You can use the Present
Perfect + ever
(in questions)
and never:
- "Has
Ann ever been
to Australia?" "No, never."
- "Have
you ever played
golf?" "Yes, once." (= one time)
- My mother has never
travelled by air.
- I've never ridden a
horse.
gone
and been
|
|
He's gone to Spain. |
He's been to Spain. |
Compare:
- I can't find Susan. Where has
she gone? (= Where is she now?)
- Oh, hello, Susan. I was looking for you. Where have you been?
See Unit 19 I have done (Present
Perfect) and I
did (Past
Simple)
Unit 17.
How long have you …? (Present Perfect 3)
(настоящее совершенное время 3)
|
|
|
She is in London now. |
|
|
(is = present) |
but |
She has been in London |
|
since Monday. |
(has been = Present Perfect) |
|
|
|
|
|
Compare:
Present Simple
|
but |
Present Perfect
|
||||
|
|
Present Continuous
|
but |
Present Perfect Continuous (have been -ing)
|
||||
|
|
See Unit 18 for since ago
Unit 18.
for since ago
(предлоги времени)
See Unit 17 How
long have you … (Present Perfect 3)
for
and since
We use for
and since
to say how long:
|
|
We use since
+ the start of the period
(Monday/ 9 o'clock etc.):
|
|
Compare:
- Barry has been in Canada since
January. (= from January to now)
- Barry has been in Canada for
six months. (not
since six months)
- I've known her since
1980. (= from 1980 to now)
- I've known her for a
long time. (not
since a long time)
See Unit 92 from … to until
since for
ago = before now:
- Susan started
her new job two weeks
ago. (= two weeks before now)
- "When did Tom
go out?" "Ten
minutes ago." (= ten minutes before now)
- I had
dinner an hour ago.
(= an hour before now)
- Life was
very different a
hundred years ago.
We use ago
with the Past Simple
(did/ had/ started
etc.)
Compare ago
and for:
- When did she arrive
in London?
- She arrived
in London four days
ago.
- How long has she
been in London?
- She has been
in London for four
days.
Unit 19.
I have done … (Present Perfect) and I did … (Past Simple)
(смысловые различия между предложениями в настоящем совершенном и простом
прошедшем времени)
See Unit 15 I
have done … (Present Perfect 1)
See Unit 16 Have
you ever … (Present Perfect 2)
See Unit 17 How
long have you … (Present Perfect 3)
See Unit 9 I
watched/ cleaned/ went etc. (Past Simple)
See Unit 10 I
didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and
questions)
We use the Past Simple
(did/ arrived/ saw/
was etc.) with a finished
time (yesterday/
last week/ in 1986/ six months ago etc.):
past + finished time |
|
|||||
|
|
We do not use
the Present Perfect
(have done / have
arrived / have been etc.) with a finished time:
- I saw
Jack yesterday.
(not I have
seen Jack yesterday)
- Where were
you last night?
(not Where
have you been last night?)
- We didn't have
a holiday last year.
(not We
haven't had)
- I got
up at 7.15.
I washed, dressed
and then I had
breakfast.
- William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was
a writer. He wrote many plays and poems.
(not … has
been a writer … has written many plays)
Use the Past Simple
to ask When?
or What time?:
- When did
they arrive?
(not When have they
arrived?)
Compare:
Present Perfect
|
but |
Past Simple
|
||||
|
|
Раздел 4. Использование страдательного залога
Unit 20. it is done/ it was done (passive)
(страдательный залог)
|
|
Compare:
Somebody cleans
the room every day. (active)
The room is
cleaned every day. (passive)
Somebody cleaned
the room yesterday. (active)
The room was
cleaned yesterday. (passive)
The Passive
is:
|
|
|
Past Participle |
|||||||||||||||||
present |
|
+ |
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||
past |
The Past Participle
of regular
verbs is -ed
(cleaned/
damaged
etc.). For a list of irregular
past participles (made/
seen etc.), see List
of irregular verbs
- Butter is
made from milk. |
|
We say was/ were born:
- I was born
in London in 1958. (not
I am born)
- Where were you born?
passive + by …:
- We were woken up by
the noise. (= The noise woke us up.)
- The telephone was invented by
Alexander Bell in 1876.
- My brother was bitten by
a dog last week.
Раздел 5. Использование будущего времени
Unit 21. What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)
(настоящее в будущем)
|
|
They are playing tennis now. |
She is playing tennis tomorrow. |
We use am/ is/ are
-ing (Present
Continuous) for something happening now (see Unit 3 I am doing (present continuous) and Unit 4 Are you -ing? (Present Continuous questions)):
- "Where are George and Sue?" "They're playing tennis in
the park."
- Please be quiet. I'm
working.
We also use am/ is/
are -ing for the future
(tomorrow / next week etc.):
- Carol is playing
tennis tomorrow.
- I'm not working next
week.
I am doing something
tomorrow = I have arranged
to do something, I have a plan to do something:
- Alice is
going to the dentist on Friday. |
|
You can also say "I'm
going to do something" (see Unit 22 I’m going to …).
Do not use the
Present Simple
(I go/ do you go?
etc.) for arrangements:
- I'm going
out this evening. (not
I go)
- Are you going
out tonight? (not
do you go)
- Ann isn't coming
to the party next week. (not
Ann doesn't come)
But we use the Present
Simple for timetables, programmes, trains etc.:
- The concert starts
at 7.30.
-
What time does the
train leave?
Study the difference:
- I'm
going to a concert this evening. |
|
Unit 22. I’m going to …
|
She is going to watch
TV this evening.
We use am/ is/ are
going to … for the future:
I |
am |
going to |
do … |
|
|
|
am |
I |
going to |
buy …? |
|
|
|
I am going to do
something = I have decided to do something, my intention is to
do something:
|
- I'm going to buy
some books tomorrow.
- Sarah is going to
sell her car.
- I'm not going to
have breakfast this morning. I'm not hungry.
- What are you going
to wear to the party on Saturday?
- "Your hair is dirty." "Yes, I know. I'm going to wash
it."
- Are you going to invite
John to your party?
You can say that something is
going to happen when it is clear now that it is sure to happen:
- Look at the sky! It's
going to rain. |
|
We also use the Present Continuous (I am -ing) for the future, usually for
arrangements (see Unit 21 What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for
the future)):
- I am playing
tennis with Jack tomorrow.
Unit 23. will/ shall (1)
|
Bill is
24 years old now. |
will +
infinitive
(will be
/ will win
/ will come
etc.):
|
We use will
for the future
(tomorrow / next week
etc.):
- She travels a lot. Today she is in London. Tomorrow she'll be in Rome. Next week she'll be
in Tokyo.
- Telephone me this evening. I'll
be at home.
- Leave the old bread in the garden. The birds will eat it.
- We'll
probably go
out this evening.
- Will you be
at home this evening?
- I won't be
here tomorrow. (= I will not be here)
- Don't drink coffee before you go to bed. You won't sleep.
We often say I think …
will…
- I think
Diana will pass
the exam.
- I don't think
it will rain
this afternoon.
- Do you think
the examination will
be difficult?
But do not use
will
for things you have already
arranged to do or decided
to do (see Unit 21 What are you doing tomorrow? (Present for
the future)):
- We're going
to the theatre on Saturday. (not
we will go)
- Are you working
tomorrow? (not
will you work)
shall
You can say I shall
(= I will) and we
shall (= we will):
- I
shall be late tommorrow. |
or |
I will
(I'll) be late tomorrow. |
|
|
But don't use shall
with you/ they/ he/
she/ it. (not
he shall be late)
See Unit 24 will/ shall
(2)
Unit 24. will/ shall (2)
See Unit 23 will/ shall
(1)
|
|
You can use I'll…
(= I will) when you offer
or decide to
do something:
- "My case is very heavy." "I'll carry it for you."
- "I'll phone
you tomorrow, okay?" "Okay, goodbye."
We often say I think
I'll/ I don't think I'll… when we decide to do something:
- I'm tired. I think
I'll go to bed early tonight.
- It's a nice day. I
think I'll sit in the garden.
- It's raining. I
don't think I'll go out.
Don't use the Present
Simple (I
go/ I phone etc.) in sentences like these:
- I'll phone
you tomorrow, okay? (not
I phone you)
- I think I'll go
to bed early. (not
I go to bed)
Don't use I'll…
for something you decided before
(see Unit 21 What are you
doing tomorrow? (Present for the future)):
- I'm working
tomorrow. (not
I'll work)
- I'm going to watch
TV tonight. (not
I'll watch)
- What are you doing
at the weekend? (not
what will you do)
Shall I …? / Shall we
…?
|
Shall I / Shall we …?
= Do you think this is a good thing to do? Do you think this is a good idea?
- It's warm in this room. Shall
I open the window?
- "Shall I phone
you this evening?" "Yes, please."
- I'm going to a party tonight. What shall
I wear?
- It's a nice day. Shall
we go for a walk?
- Where shall we go
for our holidays this year?
- "Let's go out this evening." "Okay, what time shall we meet?"
(Let's
see Unit 48 I want you
to …/ I
told you to …)
Раздел 6. Модальные глаголы
Unit 25. can and could
|
|
can + infinitive (can do / can play / can come etc.):
|
I can do something.
= I know how
to do it or it is possible
for me to do it:
- I can play
the piano. My brother can
play the piano too.
- Ann can speak
Italian but she can't
speak Spanish.
- "Can you swim?"
"Yes, but not very well."
- "Can you change
twenty pounds?" "I'm sorry I
can't."
- Bill and Jenny can't
come to the party next week.
In the past (yesterday / last week etc.): |
|
|
||||||
- When I was young, I could
run very fast.
- Before she came to Britain, she couldn't
speak English. Now she can
speak English very well.
- I was tired last night but I couldn't
sleep.
- Bill and Jenny couldn't
come to the party last week.
|
Unit 26. may and might
|
|
may or might + infinitive (may go / might go / may play / might
play etc.):
|
may/ might
= it is possible that something will happen.
You can use may
or might:
- I may go
to the cinema this evening.
or I might go to the
cinema this evening. (= perhaps I will go)
- "When is Kay going to phone you?" "I don't know. She may phone this
afternoon."
- Take an umbrella with you. It might
rain.
- "Do you think Jack will come to the party?" "I'm not sure. He may." (= He
may come.)
- "Are you going out tonight?" "I might." (= I might go out.)
Study the difference:
- I'm playing
tennis tomorrow. (sure)
I may play
tennis tomorrow. (possible)
- Barbara is going
to France next week. (sure)
Barbara might go
to France next week. (possible)
The negative is may
not or
might not:
- I might not go
to work tomorrow. (= perhaps I will not go)
- Sue may not come
to the party. (= perhaps she will not come)
May I
…? = Is it okay to do something?:
- May I smoke?
(= Is it okay if I smoke? / Can I smoke?)
- "May I sit
here?" "Yes,
of course."
Unit 27. must
|
must + infinitive (must do / must see etc.):
|
Use must
when you think it is necessary or very important to do something:
- The windows are very dirty. I must
clean them.
- It's a fantastic film. You must
see it.
- We must go
to the bank today. We haven't got any money.
must
is present or future:
- I must go
to the bank now.
- I must go
to the bank tomorrow.
For the past (yesterday / last week
etc.), we use had to
+ infinitive (had to go / had to do / had to write
etc.):
- I had to go
to the bank yesterday. (= It was necessary for me to go to the bank.)
- We had to walk
home last night. There was no bus.
See Unit 29
have to
…
mustn't
(must not)
I mustn't
do it = it is important not
to do it, it is a bad thing to do: |
|
needn't
(need not)
I needn't
do it = it is not necessary
to do it, I don't need to do it:
- I needn't clean
the windows. They aren't dirty.
- You needn't go
to the bank. I can give you some money.
You can also say don't
need to … (= needn't):
- I don't need to
clean the windows.
- You don't need to go
to the bank.
Unit 28. should
|
should + infinitive (should do / should write etc.):
|
(Someone) should
do something = It is a good thing to do or the right thing to do:
- Tom should go
to bed earlier. He usually goes to bed very late and he's always tired.
- It's a good film. You should
go and see it.
- When you play tennis, you should
always watch
the ball.
shouldn't
(or should not)
= It's not a
good thing to do or it's not the right thing to do:
- Tom shouldn't go
to bed so late.
- You work all the time. You shouldn't
work so hard.
We often
use think
with should:
|
must
(see Unit 27 must) is stronger than should:
- It's a good
film. You should
go and see it.
- It's a fantastic
film. You must
go and see it.
Another way of saying should
is ought to
…:
- It's a good film. You ought
to go and see it. (= You should go and see it.)
Unit 29. have to …
|
I have to do something = it is necessary for
me to do it, I am obliged to do it:
|
- I'll be late for work tomorrow. I have
to go to the dentist.
- Jill starts work at 7.00, so she has
to get up at 6.00.
- You have to pass
a test before you can get a driving licence.
The past (yesterday / last week
etc.) is had to
…:
- I was late for work yesterday. I had
to go to the dentist.
- There was no bus, so we had
to walk home.
In questions
and negatives
we use do/does
(present) and did (past):
present
do |
I/ we/ you/ they |
|
have to …? |
|
I/ we/ you/ they |
don't |
|
have to … |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
past
did |
I/ we/ you/ they |
|
have to …? |
|
I/ we/ you/ they |
|
didn't have to … |
|
|
|
|
|
|
- What time do you
have to get up tomorrow morning?
- Does Jill have to
work on Saturdays?
- Why did they have to
leave the party early?
I don't have to
do (something) = it is not
necessary to do it:
- I'm not working tomorrow, so I don't
have to get up early.
- lan doesn't have to
work very hard. He's got an easy job.
- We didn't have to
wait very long. The bus soon came.
have to
and must
(see Unit 27 must)
Use must
when you say what you
think is necessary, when you are giving your
opinion. Usually, have
to is also possible:
- It's a fantastic film. You must
see it. (or
You have to
see it)
Use have to
(not must) when you are not giving your personal
opinion:
- Jill won't be here this afternoon. She has
to go to the doctor. (This is not my opinion - it is a fact. )
- In many countries, men have
to do military service. (This is not my opinion - it is the law in those
countries.)
Unit 30. Would you like …?
Would you like … ? = Do you want … ? |
|
We use Would you like
to … ? to invite
someone:
- Would you like to
come to a party?
- "Would you like
to have dinner with me on Sunday?" "Yes, I'd love to. (= I
would love to have dinner with you.)"
- Where would you like
to go this evening?
I'd like (I would
like) is a polite way of saying "I want":
- (in a restaurant)
I'd like fish,
please.
- I'm thirsty. I'd
like a drink.
- I'd like to see
the film on television this evening.
Study the
difference:
Would you like … ? / I'd like … |
Do you like … ?/ I like … |
- "Would you like to go to the cinema tonight?" (tonight)"
"Yes, I'd love to go."
but "Do you like going to
the cinema?" (in
general) "Yes, I go to the cinema a lot."
- I'd like
an orange. (= I want an orange now.)
but I like oranges. (in general)
See Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I
enjoy doing)
Раздел 7. Смысловые конструкции.
Unit 31. there is, there are
|
|
|
singular:
|
- There's
a big tree in the garden. |
plural:
|
- There
are some big trees in the garden. |
· there is and it is
|
|
Compare:
- A: What's that noise? B: It's
a train. (it
= that noise)
There's a train at 10.30. It's a fast train. (it = the 10.30
train)
- There is
a lot of salt in this soup.
I don't like this soup. It's too salty. (it = this soup)
Unit 32. there was/ were/ has been/ will be
there |
is/are |
see Unit 31 |
|
|
|
|
|
Unit 33. it …
· it for time/day/distance/weather
|
|||||||
|
|||||||
|
|||||||
|
· it's nice to … etc
It's |
easy/difficult/impossible/dangerous/safe/stupid/ |
to … |
|
· It's nice to see you again. (it = to see you again)
· It's impossible to understand her. (it = to understand her)
· It wasn't easy to find your house. (it = to find your house)
· Don't forget it:
· It's raining again. (not Is raining again)
· Is it true that you are married? (not Is true that …?)
Unit 34. go/ going work/ working/ play/ playing etc.
· go/work/play etc. (infinitive)
We use the infinitive
(go/work/play/be
etc.) after:
|
We use the infinitive
with do/does/did:
do |
Do you work? |
I don't
work. |
do/does
(Present Simple)
see Unit 6 and Unit 7
did (Past Simple) see Unit 10
· to go / to work / to play etc. (to + infinitive)
We use to
… (to go / to work /
to play / to be etc.) after:
|
· going/working/playing etc.
We use -ing
with am/is/are/was/were:
am/is/are |
|
+ -ing |
Present Continuous |
|
|
|
|
· Please be quiet. I'm working.
· Tom isn't working today.
· What time are you going out?
· We didn't go out because it was raining.
· What were you doing at 11 o'clock yesterday morning?
See Unit 47 to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)
Unit 35. be/have/do in Present and Past tenses
· be (am/is/are/was/were) -ing (cleaning/working/doing etc.
Present Continuous and Past Continuous
|
- Please be quiet. I'm
working. |
||
|
- I was
working when she arrived. |
· be (am/is/are/was/were) + Past Participle (cleaned/made/eaten etc.)
Passive
|
- The room is
cleaned every day. |
||
|
- I was
working when she arrived. |
· have/has + Past Participle (cleaned/lost/eaten/been/gone etc.)
Present Perfect
|
- I have
cleaned my room. |
· do/does/did + Infinitive (clean/like/eat/go etc.)
Present Simple and Past Simple - negatives and questions
|
- I like coffee but I don't
like tea. |
||
|
- I didn't
watch TV yesterday. |
Unit 36. Regular and irregular verbs
· Past Simple and Past Participle
The Past Simple and Past Participle of regular verbs is -ed:
clean → cleaned live →
lived paint → painted
Past Simple (see Unit 9):
I cleaned
my shoes yesterday.
Charlie studied
engineering at university.
We use the Past Participle
for the Present Perfect
and the Passive.
Present Perfect
= have/has
+ Past Participle
(see Unit 15, see Unit 16, see Unit 17):
- I have cleaned
my shoes.
- Joan has lived
in London for ten years.
Passive = be (am/is/are/was/were)
+ Past Participle
(see Unit 20):
- These rooms are
cleaned every day.
- My car was repaired last
week.
· Irregular verbs
The Past Simple and Past Participle of irregular verbs are not -ed:
|
Sometimes the Past Simple and Past Participle are the same. For example:
|
- I made
a cake yesterday. (Past
Simple)
- I have made
some coffee. (Past
Participle - Present Perfect)
- Butter is made
from milk. (Past
Participle - Present Passive)
Sometimes the past simple and past participle are different. For example:
|
- Somebody broke
this window last night. (Past
Simple)
- Somebody has broken
this window. (Past
Participle - Present Perfect)
- This window was
broken last night. (Past
Participle - Past Passive)
Unit 37. I am /I don't etc.
|
|
She isn't tired but he
is. |
He smokes but she doesn't. |
|
· We use these verbs with other verbs (am going / has seen / can't come etc.) but you can also use them alone:
- I haven't got a car but my sister has. (= my sister
has got a car)
- ‘Please help me.’ ‘I'm sorry, I can't.’
(= I can't help you)
- ‘Are you tired?’ ‘I
was, but I'm
not now.’ (= I was tired but I'm not tired now.)
- ‘Do you think Ann will come?’ ‘She might.’
(= She might come.)
- ‘Are you going now?’ ‘Yes, I'm afraid I must.’ (= I must go)
· You can use these verbs in this way with Yes … and No …:
- ‘Is it raining?’ ‘Yes, it is.
/ No, it isn't.’
- ‘Have you ever been to Canada?’ ‘Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.’
- ‘Will Alan be here tomorrow?’ ‘Yes, he will.
/ No, he won't.’
· Use do/does for the Present Simple:
- I don't like hot weather but Sue does. (= Sue likes hot weather)
- She works very hard but I don't.
(= I don't work very hard)
- ‘Do you enjoy your work?’ ‘Yes, I do.’
Use did
for the Past Simple:
- ‘Did you and John enjoy the film?’ ‘I did
but John didn't.’
(= I enjoyed it but John didn't enjoy it.)
- ‘Did it
rain yesterday?’ ‘No, it didn't.’
· You cannot use the short forms 'm/'s/'re/'ve/'ll at the end of a sentence. Use the full forms am/is/are/have/will etc.:
- ‘Are you tired?’ ‘Yes, I am.’ (not ‘Yes, I'm.’)
Unit 38. Have you? / Are you? / Don't you? etc.
|
· In conversation, you can say have you? / is it? / can't he? etc. to show that you are interested or surprised. You can use these verbs in this way:
am/is/are was/were have/has do/does/did can will.
- ‘You're
late.’ ‘Oh, am
I? I'm sorry.’
- ‘I was
ill last week.’ ‘Were
you? I didn't know that.’
- ‘It's
raining again.’ ‘Is
it? It was sunny five minutes ago.’
- ‘Bill can't
drive.’ ‘Can't
he? I didn't know that.’
- ‘I'm not
hungry.’ ‘Aren't
you? I am.’
- ‘Sue isn't
at work today.’ ‘Isn't
she? Is she ill?’
Use do/does
for the Present Simple,
did
for the Past Simple:
- ‘I speak
four languages.’ ‘Do
you? Which ones?’
- ‘Tom doesn't
eat meat.’ ‘Doesn't
he? Does he eat fish?’
- ‘Linda got
married last week.’ ‘Did she?
Really?’
· Question tags
You can use …
have you? /… is it? / … can't she? etc. at the end of a
sentence. These ‘endings’ are question
tags (= mini-questions). |
|
|
Unit 39. too/either so am I/neither do I etc.
too and either |
||||
|
So am I / Neither do I etc. |
|||||||||||||||||||||
|
Unit 40.
Negatives: isn’t/ haven’t/ don’t etc.
(отрицательные
предложения с вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)
· We use not (n't) in negative sentences:
positive → negative |
|||
|
·
Present Simple negative (See Unit 6. I don’t … (Present Simple
negative)
(отрицательные формы
глаголов в простом настоящем времени)):
I/we/you/they do
not (don't) |
|
+ infinitive (work/live/go etc.) |
|
|
Past Simple negative
(See Unit 10. I didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные предложения в простом прошедшем времени)):
I/they/he/she etc. did
not (didn't) + infinitive
|
· The negative of ‘Look!’, ‘Go away!’ etc. is ‘Don't… !’:
Look! |
→ |
Don't look! |
|
|
· Do can also be the main verb (don't do / didn't do etc.):
|
Раздел 8. Образование вопросительных предложений
Unit 41. Questions (1) Is it …? Have
you …? Do
they …? etc.
(вопросительные предложения со вспомогательными глаголами be, have, do)
positive |
|
you |
X |
are |
|
You are eating. |
|
|
question |
|
are |
you |
|
Are you eating? |
|
What are you eating? |
· In questions, the first verb (is/are/have etc.) is before the subject:
|
· Be careful with word order: the subject is after the first verb:
- Where has
David gone? (not
‘Where has gone David?’)
- Why are those people
waiting? (not ‘Why are waiting
those people?’)
·
Present Simple questions: (See Unit 7. Do you …? (Present Simple
questions)
(вопросительные
предложения в простом настоящем времени)
do (I/we/you/they) |
|
+ infinitive (work/live/go etc.) |
|
|
Past Simple
questions: (See Unit 10. I
didn’t … Did you …? (Past Simple negative and questions)
(отрицательные и вопросительные
предложения в простом прошедшем времени)):
did (you/they/she etc.) + infinitive
|
Do can
also be the main verb (do
you do / did she do etc.):
- What do you
usually do
at weekends?
- ‘What does your sister do?’ ‘She works in a bank.’
- ‘I broke my leg.’ ‘How did you do that?’ (not
‘How did you that?’)
· Negative questions with Why … ? (Why isn't …? / Why don't … ? etc.): Be careful with word order in these questions:
- Where's John? Why
isn't he here? (not
‘Why he isn't here?’)
- Why can't Paula
come to the meeting? (not
‘Why Paula can't …’)
- Why didn't you
phone me last night?
See Unit 42 Questions
(2) Who saw you …? Who
did you see? and Unit 43 Who
is she talking to? What is it like?
Unit 42.
Questions (2) Who saw you …? Who did you see?
(вопросительные
предложения (2)
|
Fred saw Julia. |
|
· In these questions who or what is the subject:
- Who
lives in that house? (= Somebody lives there- who?) (not ‘Who does live …?’)
- What happened?
(= Something happened-what?) (not
‘What did happen?’)
- What's (= What is)
burning?
- Who's got (= Who has
got) my key?
· In these questions who or what is the object:
- Who did
you meet yesterday? (= You met somebody - who?)
- What did she say?
(= She said something - what?)
- Who are you phoning?
- What was he wearing?
Compare:
- George likes eggs. |
→ |
Who likes eggs? George. |
- Jill won some money. |
Who won some money? Jill. |
· Use who for people (somebody), what for things, ideas etc. (something):
- Who is your
favourite singer?
- What
is your favourite song?
Unit 43.
Questions (3) Who is she talking to? What is it like?
(вопросительные предложения (3)
|
Julia is talking to
someone. |
· Questions (Who … ? / What… ? / Where … ? / Which … ?) often end with a preposition (to/for/about/with etc.):
- ‘I'm thinking.’ ‘What
are you thinking about?’
- ‘I'm afraid.’ ‘Why? What
are you afraid of?’
- ‘Where
is your friend from?’
‘She's from Germany.’
- ‘Who
does this book belong to?’
‘It's mine.’
- ‘Who
did she go on holiday with?’
‘With her parents.’
- ‘What
does he look like?’
‘He's got a beard and wears glasses.’
- ‘This book is very good.’ ‘Is it? What
is it about?’
- ‘Tom's father is in hospital.’ ‘Which
hospital is he in?’
· What (is/are/was/were) … like?
|
‘What is it like?’ = Tell me something about it; is it good or bad, big or small, old or new? etc.
When we say ‘What … like?’, like is a preposition. It is not the verb like (Do you like music? etc.).
- A: I went to the new restaurant last night.
B: Oh, did you? What's
it like?
Good?
A: Yes, excellent.
- A: What's
your new teacher like?
B: She's very good. We learn a lot.
- A: I met Linda's parents yesterday.
B: Oh, what
are they like?
A: They're very friendly.
- A: What
was the weather like
when you were on holiday?
B:
Very nice.
Unit 44. What … ? Which … ? How … ?
· What … ?
What + noun
(What colour … ? /
What kind … ? etc.):
- What colour
is your car? What
colour are your eyes?
- What size
is this shirt? What
kind of job do you want?
- What make
is your TV set? What
time is it?
What without a noun:
- What's
your favourite colour?
- What
do you want to do this evening?
What
and Who
Unit 42. Questions
(2) Who saw you …? Who
did you see?
(вопросительные предложения (2))
· Which … ?
Which + noun (things
or people):
- Which train
did you catch - the 9.50 or the 10.30?
- Which doctor
did you see - Doctor Ellis, Doctor Gray or Doctor Hill?
Which without a noun (not people):
- Which
is bigger - Canada or Australia?
but Who is taller - Bill
or Jerry? (Who
for people)
Which one(s)
Unit 69. one/ ones
· What … ? and Which … ?
We say Which
when we are thinking about a small number (perhaps two, three or four things):
- We can go this way or that way. |
|
Use What
in other situations:
- What
is the capital of Italy?
- What
sort of music do you like? (not
‘Which sort … ?’)
Compare:
- What colour
are your eyes? (not
‘Which colour … ?’)
but Which colour do you
prefer, pink or yellow?
· How … ?
- ‘How
was the party last night?’ ‘It was great!’
- ‘How
do you usually go to work?’ ‘By bus.’
How + adjective/adverb (how old / how big / how fast
etc.):
- How old
is your father? How
tall are you? How
big is the house?
- How far
is it to the shops from here?
- How often
do you go on holiday?
Unit 45. How long does it take?
|
|
How long does
it take by plane from London to Madrid? |
I started reading the book two weeks ago. I finished it today. |
|
- How long does it
take by train from London to Manchester?
It takes two hours
by train from London to Manchester.
- How long does it
take by car from your house to the station?
It takes ten minutes
by car from my house to the station.
|
- How long does it
take to cross the Atlantic Ocean by ship?
- How long will it
take me to learn to drive?
- ‘I came by train.’ ‘Did you? How
long did it take?’
- Did it take you a
long time to find a job?
- It takes a long time
to learn a language.
- It takes me 20
minutes to get to work in the morning.
- It took Tom an hour
to do his shopping.
- It will take me an
hour to cook the dinner.
- It doesn't take long
to cook an omelette.
Unit 46. Can you tell me where …? Do you know what …? etc.
|
|
We say: Where is
the station? |
|||||
|
|
||||||
Who are
those people? |
but |
|
· Questions with do/does/did (Present Simple and Past Simple):
Where does he live? |
|
Do you know where he lives? |
(not ‘Do you know where does he live?’) |
How do
aeroplanes fly? |
but |
|
· Questions beginning Is …? / Do … ? / Can … ? etc. (yes/no questions):
Is Jack at home? |
but |
|
You can use if
or whether
in these sentences:
- Do you know if
she smokes? or
Do you know whether
she smokes?
Раздел 9. Смысловые конструкции 2.
Unit 47. to … (I want to do) and -ing (I enjoy doing)
· verbs + to … (I want to do)
|
+ |
to … (to do / to work / to be etc.) |
- What do you want to
do this evening?
- I hope to go
to university next year.
- We have decided to
leave tomorrow morning.
- You forgot to switch
off the light when you went out.
- My brother is learning
to drive.
- I tried to work
but I was too tired.
· verbs + -ing (I like doing)
|
+ |
-ing (doing/working/being etc.) |
- I enjoy
dancing.
(not ‘enjoy
to dance’) |
|
but |
|
+ |
to … (to do / to work / to be etc.) |
- Jan would like to
meet you. (not
‘would like meeting’)
- I'd love to go
to Australia. (I'd
= I would)
- ‘Would
you like to sit
down?’ ‘No, I'd prefer
to stand, thank you.’
- I wouldn't like to
be a teacher.
See Unit 30. Would you like …?
· verbs + to … or -ing:
|
+ |
to … (to do
etc.) |
- It started raining.
or It started to rain.
- I prefer travelling
by car. or I prefer to travel by
car.
(but would prefer to do something)
Unit 48. I want you to …/ I told you to …
|
|
· We say I want (you) to …:
- I want you to be
happy. (not ‘I
want that you are happy.’)
- They didn't want
anybody to know their secret.
We also use this structure (verb + somebody + to …) with: |
||||||||||
|
|
|
· I told (somebody) to … /I told (somebody) not to …:
|
- Tom said (to Ann): ‘Wait
for me!’ -> Tom told
Ann to wait
for him. |
· make and let
After make
and let
we do not use to:
- He's very funny. He makes
us laugh. (not
‘makes us to laugh’)
- I don't want you to go alone. Let
me go with you. (not
‘Let me to go’)
Let's (do
something)
You can say Let's
… (= let us)
when you want people to do things with you:
- Come on! Let's dance!
- ‘Shall we go out tonight?’ ‘No, I'm tired. Let's stay at home.’
· help
You can say help
somebody do
or help somebody to do:
- Tom helped me carry
the box. or
Tom helped me to carry
the box.
Unit 49. He said that …/ He told me that …
· After said that / told (somebody) that… a verb is usually past:
|
· say (-> said) and tell (-> told)
say something (to
somebody): They said
that… (not
‘They said me that …’)
tell
somebody something: They told
me that… / They told
Ann that…
- He said
that he was tired. (not
‘He said me that he was tired.’)
but He told me that he was
tired. (not
‘He told that he was tired.’)
- What did he say to
you? (not
‘say you’)
but What did
he tell you?
(not ‘tell to
you’)
· ‘that’ is not necessary in these sentences. You can say:
- He said that he was tired. or He said he was tired. (without ‘that’)
Unit 50. I went to the shop to buy …
Ann didn't have any bread. |
|
· to … (to do / to buy / to see etc.) tells us why a person does something (the purpose):
- ‘Why are you going out?’ ‘To
buy a newspaper.’
- George went to the station to
meet his friend.
- She turned on the TV to
watch the news.
- I'd like to go to Spain to
learn Spanish.
money /time to (do something):
- We need some money
to buy food.
- I haven't got time
to watch television.
· to … and for …:
to + verb:
to buy / to have / to
see etc.
for + noun: for some bread / for dinner / for a
holiday etc.
- She went to the shop to
buy some bread. (to
+ verb)
but She went
to the shop for some
bread. (for
+ noun)
- They are going to Scotland to
see their grandmother. (not
‘for to see’)
but They are
going to Scotland for
a holiday.
- We need some money to
buy food. (not
‘for buy’)
but We need
some money for food.
· wait
wait for somebody/something:
- Are you waiting for
the bus?
- Please wait for me.
wait for
somebody/something to
…:
- I can't go out yet. I'm
waiting for John to phone.
- I was having dinner when they arrived. They waited for me to finish my meal.
See Unit 85. enough
See Unit 86.
too
Unit 51. get
· get something/somebody = receive/buy/fetch/find
- Did you get my
letter last week? (= receive)
- I like your pullover. Where did you get
it? (= buy)
- (on the phone)
‘Hello, can I speak to Ann, please?’ ‘One moment. I'll get her.’ (= fetch)
- Is it difficult to get
a job in your country? (= find)
· get cold/hungry/tired/better etc. (get + adjective) = become
- Drink your coffee. It's
getting cold.
- If you don't eat, you get
hungry.
- I'm sorry he's ill. I hope he gets
better soon.
also: get married
and get lost:
- Linda and Frank are
getting married next month.
- I went for a walk and got
lost. (= I lost my way)
· get to a place (get to work / get to London / get home etc.) = arrive
- I usually get
to work before 8.30. (= arrive
at work) |
|
· get in/out/on/off
get in (a car) |
get on/get off (a bus, a train, a plane) |
|
|
- She got in the car
and drove away. (you can
also say ‘got into
the car’)
- A car stopped and a man got
out. (but
‘got out of the car’)
- They got on
the bus outside the hotel and got
off in Cross Street.
Unit 52. go
· go to … (go to London / go to work / go to a concert etc.)
- I'm going
to France next week. |
|
also: go to sleep (= start
to sleep):
- I went to bed and went
to sleep very quickly.
go home
(without to):
- I'm going home
now. (not
‘going to home’)
· go on holiday / a trip / an excursion / a cruise
- We go
on holiday (to Scotland) every year.
- When we were on holiday, we went
on a lot of excursions to
different places.
-
Schoolchildren often go
away on school trips.
· go for a walk / a run / a swim / a drink / a meal / a holiday
- The sea looks nice. Let's go
for a swim.
- Last night we went
out for a meal.
The restaurant was very good.
- ‘Where's Ann?’ ‘She's
gone for a walk in the park.’
- They've gone to
Scotland for a
holiday.
(We say ‘on holiday’
but ‘for a holiday’)
· go swimming / go shopping etc.
We use go -ing for sporting activities (go swimming / go skiing / go jogging / go fishing etc.) and also shopping (go shopping):
|
|
-
We live near the mountains. In winter we go skiing every
weekend.
- She has a small boat and she often goes
sailing.
- Are you going
shopping this afternoon?
- It's a nice day. Let's go
swimming. (or
Let's go for a swim.)
- George went fishing
last Sunday. He
caught a lot offish.
Раздел 10. Местоимения
Unit 53. I/me, he/him, they/them etc.
· people
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
subject |
I |
we |
you |
he |
she |
they |
object |
me |
us |
you |
him |
her |
them |
|
|
Use me/him/her etc. (object) after prepositions (for/to/at/with etc.):
- This letter isn't for
you. It's for
me.
- Where's Alan? I want to talk to
him.
- Who is that woman? Why are you looking at
her?
- We're going to the cinema. Do you want to come with us?
- They are going to the cinema. Do you want to go with them?
· things
|
|
|
subject |
it |
they |
- I want that book. Please
give it
to me.
- I want those books.
Please give them
to me.
- Diane never drinks milk.
She doesn't like it.
- I never go to parties.
I don't like them.
- ‘Where's the
newspaper?’ ‘You're sitting on it.’
Unit 54. my/his/their etc.
|
We use my/your/his/her etc. + a noun:
my hands |
his mother |
her new car |
· his/her/their:
· its and it's:
its |
Oxford is famous for its
university. |
Unit 55. Whose is this? It’s mine.
|
|
|
· my/our/your/her/their + a noun (my hands/your book etc.):
- My
hands are cold.
- Is this your book?
- Ann gave me her
umbrella.
- It's their problem, not our problem.
· mine/ours/yours/hers/theirs without a noun:
- These books are mine
but this newspaper is yours.
(= your newspaper)
- I didn't have an umbrella, so Ann gave me hers. (= her umbrella)
- It's their problem, not ours.
(= our problem)
- ‘Is that their car?’ ‘No, theirs
is green.’ (= their car)
· his with or without a noun:
- Is this his
camera?
- It's a nice camera. Is it his?
· We say: a friend of mine/a friend of his/some friends of yours etc.:
- I went out to meet a
friend of mine. (not
‘a friend of me’)
- Are those people friends
of yours? (not
‘friends of you’)
· Whose …?
- Whose
book is this? (= Is it your book? his book? my book? etc.)
You can use whose with or without a noun:
Whose money is this? |
|
It's mine. |
|
|
Whose shoes are these? |
|
They're John's. |
Unit 56. I/me/my/mine
|
|
|
I etc. |
me etc. |
my etc. |
mine etc. |
|
I know Tom. |
Tom knows me. |
It's my car. |
It's mine. |
|
We know Tom. |
Tom knows us. |
It's our car. |
It's ours. |
|
You know Tom. |
Tom knows you. |
It's your car. |
It's yours. |
|
He know Tom. |
Tom knows him. |
It's his car. |
It's his. |
|
She know Tom. |
Tom knows her. |
It's her car. |
It's hers. |
|
They know Tom. |
Tom knows them. |
It's their car. |
It's theirs. |
|
See Unit 53. |
See Unit 53. |
See Unit 54. |
See Unit 55. |
- ‘Do you
know that man?’ ‘Yes, I
know him
but I
can't remember his
name.’
- She was very happy because we
invited her
to stay with us
at our house.
- ‘Where are the children? Have you
seen them?’
‘Yes, they
are playing with their
friends in the garden.’
- That pen is mine.
Can you
give it to me,
please?
- ‘Is this your
umbrella?’ ‘No, it's yours.’
- He
didn't have an umbrella, so she
gave him hers.
(= she gave her umbrella to him)
- I
gave him my address
and he
gave me his.
(= he gave his address to me)
Unit 57. myself/yourself/himself etc.
|
|
- I cut myself
with a knife. (not
‘I cut me’)
- She fell off her bicycle but she
didn't hurt herself.
- Do you
sometimes talk to
yourself when you are alone?
- If you want some more food, help
yourselves.
- Did they pay for
themselves or did you pay for them?
- ‘Did you all have a nice time?’ ‘Yes, we
enjoyed ourselves.’
· by myself/by yourself etc. = alone
- I
went on holiday by
myself. (= I went on holiday alone.)
- She wasn't with her friends. She was by
herself.
· -selves and each other
- I looked at myself
and Tom looked at himself. |
|
- Jill and Ann are good friends. They know each other very
well. |
|
Unit 58. -’s (Ann’s camera/my brother’s car etc.
|
|
|
Ann's camera |
my brother's car |
the manager's office |
· We normally use -'s (not of …) for people:
- I stayed at my
sister's house. (not
‘the house of my sister’)
- Have you met Mr
Kelly's wife? (not
‘the wife of Mr Kelly’)
- Are you going to James's
party?
- Ann is a girl's
name.
You can use -'s without a noun:
- Mary's hair is longer than Ann's.
(= Ann's hair)
- ‘Whose umbrella is this?’ ‘It's my
mother's.’ (= my mother's umbrella)
- ‘Where were you last night?’ ‘At John's.’
(= John's house)
· friend's and friends'
|
|
my friend's house = one friend |
my friends' house = two or more friends |
We write -'s
after friend/student/mother
etc. (singular):
my mother's
car (one mother)
my father's
car (one father)
We write -'
after friends/students/parents etc. (plural):
my parents'
car (two parents)
· We use of … (not usually -'s) for things, places etc.:
the roof of the
building (not
‘the building's roof’)
the beginning of the
film (not
‘the film's beginning’)
the time of the next
train
the capital of Spain
the meaning of this
word
the name of this town
the cause of the
problem
the back of the car
Раздел 11. Употребление артиклей и предлогов с именами существительными
Unit 59. a/an
(неопределенный артикль)
· a = “one”. Don't forget a:
- Do you want a cup
of tea? (not
“Do you want cup of tea?”)
- Alice works in a
bank. (not
“in bank”)
- I want to ask a
question. (not
“ask question”)
- When I was a child,
I liked reading stories.
-
Birmingham is a
large city
in central England.
· an (not a) before a/e/i/o/u:
- They live in an old
house. (not “a
old house.”)
- A mouse
is an animal.
It's a small
animal.
- Can you give me an example,
please?
- This is an interesting
book.
- I bought a hat
and an umbrella.
also |
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our) |
but |
a university a European country |
|
(these words are pronounced “yuniversity”, “yuropean”) |
· We use a/an for jobs etc.:
|
· another (an + other) is one word (not “an other”):
- Can I have another
cup of coffee?
- Open another window.
It's very hot.
ЧАСТЬ 2. Практикум по закреплению навыков.
Раздел 1. Работа с текстами.
Unit 1.
1) Read the text.
ACCESS METHODS
An access method is a technique for accessing data that has been placed on some kind of mass storage device: magnetic tape at one time, but now most often a hard disk. While the term access method is most properly used to describe the method used to retrieve the data, it is also frequently used as a synonym for the program or routine that implements the method. All manufacturers provide computers with the service routines to implement access methods, as a general component of an operating system. Instead of access method, terms such as data management, file control program, and I/O (input or output) supervisor are sometimes used, depending on the manufacturer. The terminology used in this article is common to several manufacturers, including IBM, but not all manufacturers support every variant described. …
2) Study the word combinations:
accessing data - доступ к данным
mass storage device - запоминающее устройство большой емкости
magnetic tape - магнитная лента
service routines – обслуживающие программы
data management - управление данными
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What is the access method?
2) Which term is used instead of access method?
3) How do all computer manufactures provide service routines?
4) What manufactures are the terminology “access method” common to?
4) Find English equivalents in the text.
1) Все производители оснащают компьютеры обслуживающими программами для внедрения методов доступа, в основном, в качестве компонентов операционной системы.
2) Метод доступа - это технология доступа к данным, которые находятся на некотором запоминающем устройстве большой емкости.
3) Иногда вместо понятия “метод доступа” используются такие термины, как: управление данными, программа управления файлами, диспетчер В/В (ввод / вывод), в зависимости от производителя.
5) Fill in the blanks with suitable words and word combinations from the text.
1) An access method is a technique for accessing data that has been _____ some kind of mass storage device.
2) _____ access method, terms such as data management supervisor are sometimes used, _____ the manufacturer.
3) The terminology used in this article is _____ several manufacturers.
4) The term access method is most _____describe the method used to retrieve the data.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
At one time, placed on, used as, instead of, common to, depending on, component of.
Unit 2.
1) Read the text.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
Many programs are too long to fit into the space in main memory that can be allocated to them at run time. In a uniprogramming system, this will be true when the amount of space required by the program is greater than the total memory available to problem programs. In a multiprogramming system it may be true because the amount of space that is needed is more than the operating system is willing to allocate to this particular program. In either case, it becomes necessary to break the program up into sections, segments, or overlays so that the entire program need not be in main memory at the same time. The term folding has sometimes been used for this process.
In many old systems, the programmer had the responsibility for breaking the program into overlays and for providing the loading instructions that bring necessary overlays into main memory as they are needed. Many software systems provided aids to overlay planning. The user could name the overlays so that all symbolic addresses in an overlay would automatically be tagged with a special identifier that indicated which overlay they belonged to. A loader or linker сreated an object program organized as a set of overlays and a root segment containing information about the overlay structure. The root segment would be loaded into main memory along with the segments needed to get the program started. Any reference to a symbolic address in a segment not in main memory would cause a call on the supervisor to load the required segment, overlaying other segments if necessary. …
2) Study the word combinations:
entire program - целая программа
particular program - конкретная программа
software systems - система программного обеспечения
special identifier – специальный идентификатор
root segment - корневой сегмент
run time - время выполнения ( программы )
folding - свертывание
identifier - идентификатор
supervisor – супервизор (устаревшее название операционной системы)
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What is virtual memory?
2) Where are many programs allocated to?
3) What’s a multiprogramming system?
4) What responsibility did the programmer have for in many old systems?
5) What systems did provide aids to overlay planning?
6) Where would the root segment be loaded?
7) How could the user name the overlays?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) В мультипрограммной системе это возможно, потому что количество места, которое необходимо, больше, чем операционная система может выделить данной программе.
2) Во многих старых системах программист отвечал за разбиение программы на сегменты и за обеспечение инструкций, которые загружают необходимые сегменты в основную память по мере надобности.
3) Корневой сегмент должен быть загружен в основную память одновременно с сегментами, необходимыми для запуска программы.
4) В этом случае необходимо разбить программу на секции, сегменты, или оверлеи, так как не следует загружать программу полностью в основную память.
5) Многие программы слишком большие, чтобы уместиться в пространство основной памяти, которая может быть распределена на них во время выполнения.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) It becomes necessary to break the program up _____ sections, segments, or overlays so that the entire program need not be in main memory at the same time.
2) In many old systems, the programmer had the responsibility _____ breaking the program into overlays.
3) The user could name the overlays so that all symbolic addresses _____ an overlay would automatically be tagged _____ a special identifier.
4) A loader or linker created an object program organized as a set ____overlays and a root segment containing information ______ the overlay structure.
5) Many programs are too long to fit _____ the space in main memory that can be allocated to them ____run time.
6) The root segment would be loaded _____ main memory along _____ the segments needed to get the program started.
7) Any reference to a symbolic address in a segment not in main memory would cause a call ____ the supervisor to load ____ the required segment.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
Amount of, in either case, to fit into, used for, responsibility for, be tagged with, belonged to, a set of, to load into, along with, reference to, call on, information about.
7) Make a summary of this text.
Unit 3.
1) Read the text.
ADMINISTRATIVE APPLICATIONS (Introduction)
In the early years of electronic computing, applications were classified simply as either "scientific" or "business." The essence of the distinction was that scientific applications involved substantial arithmetic operations on rather small volumes of data, whereas business applications involved modest arithmetic operations on substantial amounts of data. Internal computer speed (CPU instruction cycle time and memory access time) was the crucial variable in scientific computing applications, while input and output speed and versatility (punched card input-output (I/O), printed output, magnetic tape I/O, disk I/O, etc.) were the crucial variables in business data processing. The two types of applications were called "CPU-intensive" (sometimes "CPU-bound") or "input-output-intensive" ("I/O-bound"). Matrix inversion was "typical" of scientific applications, and insurance company premium transactions processing was "typical" of business applications. With the passage of time and with the pervasive evolution of computer applications, the original two-category distinction no longer sufficed.
First, government transactions processing grew no less rapidly than did business transactions processing, as government agencies, like the US Social Security Administration, established pioneering large-scale government administrative applications that were strikingly similar to business applications. This led to the recognition that the term "administrative" applications was a more descriptive term than "business" applications, since both the private and public sectors "administer," while only the private sector does "business" in the commercial sense of the word.
Second, these simple classifications fell by the wayside with the establishment of other significant varieties of computer applications, such as process control, information retrieval, voice and message switching, and advanced technical applications such as computer-aided design and computer-assisted instruction (CAI).
Today, administrative applications are widely considered to be those that involve the use of computers for processing information in support of the operational, logistical, and functional activities performed by all organizations, and may be classified in a number of different ways. One is by organization type, e.g. banking, insurance, manufacturing, and government (which may be further subdivided into many different categories, such as defense, education, revenue, health services, etc.), among others. Another is by type of function (e.g. accounting, budgeting, payroll, property control, and many others).
This article describes the evolution and growth of administrative applications, the organization of data processing activity, and the increasingly complex administrative processing environment of the late 1990s and into the next millennium.
2) Study the word combinations:
the essence of the distinction - сущность различия
substantial arithmetic operations – основные арифметические операции
business applications - бизнес-приложения (приложения для деловой сферы)
internal computer speed - внутреннее быстродействие компьютера
crucial variable - ключевая переменная
versatility – многосторонность
premium transactions - сделки оплаты
pervasive evolution - повсеместная эволюция
processing grew - обработка росла
large-scale government - крупномасштабное управление
strikingly similar - поразительно аналогичный
descriptive term – содержательный термин
commercial sense – коммерческий смысл
wayside - придорожная полоса, обочина
significant varieties of computer applications - значимые ряды компьютерных приложений
information retrieval – сбор информации
computer-aided design - автоматизированное проектирование
computer-assisted instruction - автоматизированная инструкция
payroll - платежная ведомость
revenue – доход
complex administrative processing environment - сложная административная среда обработки
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What information or ideas do you have about administrative applications?
2) How were applications of electronic computing classified?
3) What was the internal computer speed?
4) How were the two types of applications called?
5) What did the original two-category distinction no longer suffice with?
6) What government agency is US Social Security Administration?
7) What is a CAI?
8) What are administrative applications widely considered being today?
9) Which processes does this article describe?
3) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Внутреннее быстродействие компьютера было критически важно в научных приложениях, тогда как скорость ввода/вывода и универсальность были критически важными в обработке деловой информации.
2) Инверсия матриц была "типичной" для научных приложений, а обработка сделок оплаты страховых компаний была "типичной" для деловых приложений.
3) На заре эры электронной обработки приложения классифицировались просто как "научные" или "деловые”.
4) Сегодня административные приложения широко рассматриваются, как приложения, которые включают в себя использование компьютеров для обработки информации в операционной, логической и функциональной деятельности, выполняемой всеми организациями, и могут быть классифицированы на множество других путей.
5) Эта статья описывает эволюцию и рост административных приложений, организацию деятельности обработки данных, и возрастающую сложность административных задач в конце 1990-х и в следующем тысячелетии.
6) Эта простая классификация более не использовалась с созданием других значимых типов компьютерных приложений, связанных, например, с управлением процессами, сбором информации, коммутацией голоса и сообщений, и передовых технических приложений, таких, как автоматизированное проектирование и автоматизированная инструкция.
4) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) The essence _____ distinction was that scientific applications involved substantial arithmetic operations _____ rather small volumes of data, whereas business applications involved modest arithmetic operations _____ substantial amounts of data.
2) With the passage _____ time and with the pervasive evolution _____ computer applications, the original two-category distinction no longer sufficed.
3) These simple classifications fell _____ the wayside with the establishment _____ other significant varieties of computer applications, such as process control, information retrieval, voice and message switching.
4) Today, administrative applications are widely considered to be those that involve the use ______ computers for processing information in support _____ the operational, logistical, and functional activities performed by all organizations, and may be classified ______ a number of different ways.
5) This article describes the evolution and growth ______ administrative applications, the organization of data processing activity, and the increasingly complex administrative processing environment ______ the late 1990s and into the next millennium.
5) Make sentences using these expressions:
Classified in, essence of, variable in, evolution of, similar to, considered to, performed by, type of, environment of.
6) Make a summary of this text.
Unit 4.
1) Read the text.
AIKEN, HOWARD
Howard Hathaway Aiken was born 8 March 1900, in Hoboken, NJ, and died 14 March 1973, in St Louis, MO. He grew up in Indianapolis, where he attended Arsenal Technical High School while working 12 hours a night at the Indianapolis Light and Heat Company. Upon graduation he went to work for the Madison (Wisconsin) Gas Company, a position that allowed him to go to the University of Wisconsin. He received his B.A. degree in 1923 and was immediately promoted to chief engineer at Madison Gas.
In 1935 he returned to study, first at the University of Chicago and then at Harvard. His doctoral thesis at Harvard, resulting in a Ph.D. in 1939, was on the theory of space charge conduction. The research required laborious calculations of nonlinear differential equations. This experience led him to investigate the possibility of performing these types of calculations with machine assistance. His thoughts on this subject led him in 1937 to circulate a memo entitled, "Proposed Automatic Calculating Machine" (reprinted in Spectrum, August 1964, 62-69).
Harvard was not the most likely environment to get support for this type of research. Fortunately, Harvard professors Ted Brown (Business) and Harlow Shapley (Astronomy) were impressed with his work, and both knew of the interest of Thomas Watson Sr. in projects of this nature. With their encouragement, and the knowledge that IBM had the necessary technology, Aiken approached Watson. A contract was signed in 1939 whereby IBM would build the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I). The machine was running in 1944, and Aiken and Grace Hopper described it in a paper in Electrical Engineering (Vol. 65, 1946, 384-391, 449-454, 522-528; reprinted in Rendell, 1982).
The Mark I was followed by the Mark II (a relay machine built for the US Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, VA, and completed in 1946), the Mark III (an electronic machine, also for Dahlgren, completed in 1950), and the Mark IV (an electronic machine built for and delivered to the US Air Force in 1952). With the completion of Mark IV, Aiken got out of the business of building computers.
It is difficult to evaluate precisely the impact of Aiken's series of machines and the Harvard Computation Laboratory, which he founded. Fortunately, the documents are available to anyone interested. One need only look at the log books of the computation lab for this period to see the worldwide range of people who visited the laboratory. Another source of Aiken's work is the many publications in the "Annals of the Harvard Computation Laboratory" series. The Harvard catalog also provides clear evidence of the existence of courses in "computer science" a decade before the emergence of this program at most universities.
In 1947 and again in 1949 Aiken organized symposia on large-scale digital devices at Harvard. Programs from both meetings strongly reflect his hand and his philosophy at that time. Perhaps his most profound impact was in the environment he created at Harvard, which enabled the University to become a vital training ground for many people who became outstanding in the field. A perusal of those who did their doctoral dissertations under his direction is an excellent example of this impact.
Aiken retired from Harvard in 1961 and moved to Fort Lauderdale, FL, where he formed Aiken Industries. He also joined the faculty of the University of Miami as Distinguished Professor of Information Technology. In this latter position, he helped the University develop a computer science program and design a computing center.
His honors include honorary degrees (University of Wisconsin, Wayne State University, and Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt), prizes (Rochlitz Prize, Edison Medal of IEEE, the John Price Award of the Franklin Institute) as well as medals from both the US (Air Force and Navy for distinguished service) and other governments (Sweden, Belgium, France, and Spain).
Howard Aiken felt that he had to be continuously involved in challenging endeavors in order to stay alive both physically and intellectually. His career is a document of that creed. Some of his detractors accused him of living in the past, but nothing could be further from the truth. He was a man of rare vision, whose insights have had a profound effect on the entire computing profession.
2) Study the word combinations:
chief engineer - главный инженер
doctoral thesis - докторская диссертация
space charge conduction - космическая электропроводность платы
laborious calculations of nonlinear differential equations- трудоемкие вычисления нелинейных дифференциальных уравнений
differential equations - дифференциальные уравнения
machine assistance - машинная помощь
to circulate a memo entitled – опубликовать сообщение, озаглавить
whereby - посредством чего
completion of - завершение
to evaluate precisely - оцениваться точно
impact of – влияние
log books - регистрационные журналы
worldwide range - всемирный диапазон
clear evidence - ясное подтверждение
digital devices - цифровые устройства
to reflect – отражаться
profound impact - глубокое влияние
a training ground – тренировочная площадка
a perusal of - прочтение
challenging endeavors - вызывающие попытки
detractor - клеветник, очернитель
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) Who is Aiken Howard?
2) Where and when did Howard receive his B.A. degree?
3) Where did he grow up?
4) Which universities did he study at?
5) What was his doctoral thesis resulting in a Ph.D. about?
6) What did his research require?
7) Who were impressed with his work?
8) What do you know about IBM?
9) When was a contract with IBM signed?
10) Who was the machine “Harvard Mark I” described by?
11) Which of Howard’s machines was built for US Air Force?
12) Where can we find out about Howard’s series of machines?
13) What sources of Howard’s work do you know?
14) Where and when did Howard organize symposia on large-scale digital devices?
15) When did Howard retire?
16) Where did he form “Aiken Industries”?
17) Who did help him in his latter position?
18) What honorary degrees, prizes, and medals did he get?
19) What is his career?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Он получил степень бакалавра в 1923 и немедленно был повышен до должности главного инженера в Madison Gas.
2) Исследование требовало кропотливых вычислений нелинейных дифференциальных уравнений.
3) Каталог Гарварда также обеспечивает ясное подтверждение существования курсов в "информатике" за десятилетие до возникновения этой программы в других университетах.
4) Эйкен ушел в отставку из Гарварда в 1961 и перешел в Fort Lauderdale, где он сформировал Aiken Industries.
5) Он был человеком редкого виденья, чьи взгляды имели важное значение для всей сферы деятельности, связанной с компьютингом
6) Возможно, наиболее глубокое влияние Эйкина было в среде, созданной им в Гарварде, позволившей Университету стать живой тренировочной площадкой для многих людей, которые становились выдающимися в этой области.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) Upon graduation he went to work _____ the Madison (Wisconsin) Gas Company, a position that allowed him to go _____ the University of Wisconsin.
2) His doctoral thesis _____ Harvard, resulting _____ a Ph.D. in 1939, was on the theory of space charge conduction.
3) Harvard was not the most likely environment to get support _____ this type of research.
4) With the completion _____ Mark IV, Aiken got _________ the business of building computers.
5) The Harvard catalog also provides clear evidence of the existence _____ courses in "computer science" a decade before the emergence of this program _____ most universities.
6) Aiken retired _______ Harvard in 1961 and moved _____ Fort Lauderdale, FL, where he formed Aiken Industries.
7) He helped ______ the University develop a computer science program and design a computing center.
8) Howard Aiken felt that he had to be continuously involved _____ challenging endeavors _____ order to stay alive both physically and intellectually.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
Work for, promote to, support for, be impressed with, delivered to, impact of, to be outstanding in, to retire from.
7) Make a summary of this text.
Unit 5
1) Read the text.
ALGOL
The driving concern in the development of the programming language Algol was to establish a notation for programs that would be a suitable carrier of algorithms and programs among computers of different types and capabilities.
Algol was the result of a collaboration of American and European committees. When the work was initiated in 1956, the computing scene in Europe was still dominated by one-of-a-kind computers, while in the USA the most commonly used computers were from manufacturers' standard series.
The problems of designing adequate programs were becoming acute everywhere. One approach to overcoming these problems was to replace the cumbersome machine languages by more convenient notations. The selection of such notations was guided by the applications of computers in science and engineering that dominated the early years of their invention, namely, solving the problems of mathematical analysis by techniques developed in numerical analysis. Numerical techniques build principally on operands of programs that are numerals in floating-point form. Thus programming notations came to be inspired by the algebraic notations that had a long tradition in mathematical analysis. Experiments with using such notations for programs were being made in many places.
Another approach to alleviating the problems of programming was to organize collections of subroutines for common processes, which were parameterized so as to allow them to be included in complete programs. Libraries of subroutines had in fact long been established around computer installations.
The idea of establishing a programming notation that would be equally suitable in programming computers of different makes and types and for exchange of programs was first proposed in Europe in 1955, and became the subject of a working group of GAMM (Gesellschaft fiir angewandte Mathematik und Mech-anik). In 1957 this group joined a similar effort conducted within ACM. In June 1958 a GAMM-ACM working conference in Zurich worked out a proposal, later known as the Zurich Report or Algol 58, for an algebraic programming language designed for use in programming a variety of computers, as well as for describing algorithms in publications.
The Zurich Report gave rise to intense public discussion. As a result, a 13-person committee met in Paris in January 1960, where a new version of the language, Algol 60, was discussed and agreed upon. Some minor corrections to Algol 60 were published in the Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 in 1962.
The problems discussed and solved during the development of Algol were those that were imposed by the aim that the resulting notation would be suitable both for wide communication and for programming of many different computers. This implied the requirements that both the meaning of the computational processes described in the notation and the description of the notation itself would be clear and unambiguous, using forms of description that would make computer-independent sense and that would support implementation equivalently across a range of computers of different makes and types.
An induced requirement was that, for reasons of expediency, the computational processes made available to the user of the notation had to allow effective description in brief terms. This requirement led to another, namely that mechanisms made available to the user of the notation had, as far as possible, to be describable in terms of a few rules that were generally valid, without exceptions.
The first proposal for the language, Algol 58, solved many of the problems. It introduced the idea that there would be three representations of the language (reference, publication, and hardware), such that the meaning of texts expressed in the language would only be defined in terms of the reference representation, while the typographical forms used in the publication and hardware representations were left to be chosen by users and implementers. …
2) Study the word combinations:
collaboration of - сотрудничество
driving concern – движущая цель
initiated in – начат в
one-of-a-kind - необычный, своеобразный
dominated by – под власть
adequate programs - требуемые программы
acute – острый
cumbersome - громоздкий, объемистый
operands of programs - операнды программ
floating-point - плавающая-точка
subroutines for - подпрограммы для
imposed by - навязан
computational processes - вычислительные процессы
unambiguous - однозначный
an induced requirement - порожденное требование
expediency - целесообразность
notation - нотация, система обозначений
to be describable in – иметь возможность быть описанным в
hardware - аппаратные средства
be defined in - определен в
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What is Algol?
2) What was Algol result of?
3) What were the problems of designing?
4) How were these problems solved?
5) What were numerical techniques build principally on?
6) What was another approach to alleviating the problems?
7) Where was exchange of programs first proposed?
8) What was the subject of a working group of GAMM?
9) How can you describe Algol 58?
10) Where and when was a new version Algol 60 discussed, agreed upon?
11) What did the first proposal for the Algol 58?
12) How were many of the problems solved?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Algol являлся результатом сотрудничества Американских и Европейских комитетов.
2) Проблемы проектирования требуемых программ становились острыми везде.
3) Движущей целью разработки языка программирования Algol было установление условных обозначений (операторов) для программ, которые смогут быть подходящими носителями алгоритмов, и программ среди компьютеров различных типов и возможностей.
4) Таким образом, операторы программирования были вдохновлены алгебраическими операторами, которые имели длинную традицию в математическом анализе.
5) Библиотеки подпрограмм фактически надолго установились среди компьютерных инсталляций.
6) Проблемы, обсужденные и решенные во время разработки Algol, были вызваны целью - конечная нотация должна быть пригодной как для широкой связи, так и для программирования многих разных компьютеров.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) One approach _____ overcoming these problems was to replace the cumbersome machine languages _____ more convenient notations.
2) Thus programming notations came to be inspired _____ the algebraic notations that had a long tradition _____ mathematical analysis. Experiments with using such notations for programs were being made _____ many places.
3) The selection of such notations was guided _____ the applications of computers _____ science and engineering that dominated the early years of their invention, namely, solving the problems of mathematical analysis _____ techniques developed in numerical analysis.
4) The idea _____ establishing a programming notation that would be equally suitable ___ programming computers of different makes and types and for exchange of programs was first proposed in Europe.
5) In 1957 this group joined ____ a similar effort conducted _____ ACM.
6) Some minor corrections _____ Algol 60 were published _____ the Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 in 1962.
7) This requirement led to another, namely that mechanisms made available ____ the user of the notation had, as far as possible, to be describable _____ terms of a few rules that were generally valid, without exceptions.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
A notation for, be dominated by, be initiated in, scene in, be guided by, analysis by, be developed in, to be inspired by, suitable in, exchange of, be proposed in, be conducted within, corrections to, proposal for, be defined in, to be chosen by, to be describable in.
7) Make a summary of this text.
Unit 6.
1) Read the text.
ALGORITHMICS
Algorithmics is the systematic study of algorithms — how to devise them, describe them, validate them, and compare their relative merits. As the study of algorithms, algorithmics might be deemed a synonym for computer science. And, to be sure, "algorithmics" appears in the names of an increasing number of computer science courses, journals, books, research groups, and consulting firms. However, the term is perhaps still used primarily by mathematicians and mathematics educators, for whom it connotes an approach to mathematics where the study of the calculations by which answers are obtained is as important as determining that answers exist. This is quite different from the approach to mathematics during most of the twentieth century. At the school level, there was much doing of algorithms, but in a rote way. At the university level, the emphasis was on the existence and structure of mathematical objects. But now, with computers, such large and complicated problems are tackled that it is natural to be more systematic about the methodology for computing answers. Thus, algorithmics means not only being explicit about the use of algorithms to do mathematics (for instance, by using algorithmic language (i.e. pseudocode) to describe solution methods), but it also means regarding algorithms themselves as worthy objects of mathematical study.
Algorithmics is usually divided into three parts: design, verification, and analysis. Design is the process of creating algorithms and the study of good creation approaches (for instance, reducing to smaller cases and top-down planning). Verification is proving algorithms correct; the primary technique is mathematical induction, often expressed in terms of loop invariants. Analysis is the determination of the efficiency of an algorithm (how long it takes to run as a function of input size, or how much memory is required) and, when more than one algorithm is known to solve a problem, a comparison of their relative efficiencies. Better yet, but usually quite difficult, is to determine or at least bound the optimal efficiency for any method that solves the problem at hand. Determining the optimum over all algorithms for a problem is called determining the computational complexity of the problem. …
2) Study the word combinations
to devise – изобретать, разрабатывать
validate - проверять достоверность; подтверждать правильность
relative merits - относительные достоинства
to be deemed - считаться
it connotes - означает
a rote way – путем зубрежки
the emphasis - акцент
be tackled – быть поднятым, быть начатым
to be explicit - быть явным, выявлять
regarding - относительно; касательно
worthy - соответствующий, подобающий, достойный
verification - проверка правильности выполнения операции
top-down - нисходящий; сверху вниз
loop invariants - инвариант цикла
efficiencies – эффективность, производительность
bound - граница; предел, предельное значение
computational complexity - вычислительная сложность число шагов или арифметических операций, требуемых для решения вычислительной проблемы
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) How can you describe Algorithmics?
2) What might algorithmics be as the study of algorithmics?
3) What differences were at the school lever and university level of the term “algorithmics”? And now?
4) What does algorithmics mean?
5) How many parts is algorithmics usually divided?
6) What do you know about design?
7) What is verification?
8) How can you explain and analysis?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Это отличается от подхода к математике в течение большей части двадцатого столетия.
2) На университетском уровне акцент был на существовании и структуре математических объектов.
3) Алгоритмирование обычно разделяется на три части: проектирование, проверка и анализ.
4) Определение оптимального алгоритма решения задачи среди всех алгоритмов называется определением вычислительной сложности задачи.
5) Алгоритмирование - систематическое исследование алгоритмов – связано с разработкой алгоритмов, их описанием, подтверждением и сравнением их относительных достоинств.
6) Теперь с появлением компьютеров такие большие и сложные проблемы решаются легче, естественнее и систематичнее в смысле методологии вычисления ответов.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) This is quite different _____ the approach to mathematics _____ most of the twentieth century.
2) With computers, such large and complicated problems are tackled that it is natural to be more systematic ______ the methodology for computing answers.
3) Verification is proving algorithms correct; the primary technique is mathematical induction, often expressed _____ terms of loop invariants.
4) As the study of algorithms, algorithmics might be deemed a synonym _____ computer science.
5) Analysis is the determination _____ the efficiency of an algorithm and, when more than one algorithm is known to solve a problem, a comparison _____ their relative efficiencies.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
Be deemed for, appears in, approach to, different from, systematic about, be explicit about, divide into, expressed in, comparison of, function of, at hand.
Unit 7.
1) Read the text.
Analog Computer: The End of an Era
Analog and hybrid computers were generally phased out during the late 1970s. Most users realized they faced the end of an era, brought on by the ever-increasing speed, power, and memory capacity of digital computers. By the late 1970s it was obvious that soon digital solutions would be faster—and considerably more accurate and convenient to use—than even high-speed analog or hybrid computers were. The old axiom that "... when digital computers are programmed to solve equations as fast as analogs, they are less accurate; and when programmed to be as accurate, digital computers are much slower," was no longer true.
The paradigm shift occurred with the advent of digital computer programs and special programming languages. These made it possible to use Kelvin's method of successive integrations on a digital computer. The Continuous System Modeling Program (CSMP) for IBM computers, the SIMSCRIPT language and a number of others opened a new era and allowed users to solve sets of differential equations with ease and accuracy.
One advance that made this possible was the development of integration algorithms that delivered accurate numerical solutions. With these methods complex sets of differential equations are now solved as effortlessly and accurately as arithmetic equations so that there is a very limited market for electronic analog computers to solve such problems. Thus, the development has, in a way, come full circle. Lord Kelvin’s "feedback" method of successive numerical integrations, pioneered in 1876, is now in general use on digital computers but with little recognition given to its deep significance.
2) Study the word combinations:
to phase out - постепенно прекращать, свертывать
ever-increasing - возрастающий
convenient - удобный
obvious - очевидный, явный, ясный
old axiom - старая аксиома
equations - уравнения
paradigm shift - изменение парадигмы
advent of digital computer – наступление, приход цифровой вычислительной машины
successive integrations - последующая интеграция
effortlessly - без усилий; без напряжения
full circle - полный круг
feedback - обратная связь
pioneered in - впервые исследован в
significance – значение
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What differences are between analog and digital computer?
2) When did analog and hybrid comps started to be phased out?
3) What was obvious about digital solutions by the late 1970s?
4) How true was old axiom?
5) What did it make possible to use Kelvin’s method of successive integrations on a digital comp?
6) Which programs, languages did it make open a new era and allow users to solve sets of differential equations with case and accuracy?
7) When was Lord Kelvin’s “feedback” method of successive numerical integrations pioneered ?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Большинство пользователей поняли, что они стояли перед концом эры, принесенным постоянно увеличивающейся скоростью, мощностью и вместимостью памяти цифровых компьютеров.
2) Изменение парадигмы произошло с появлением программ компьютера и специальных языков программирования.
3) Прорыв, который сделал это возможным - развитие алгоритмов интегрирования, которые давали точные числовые решения.
4) В конце 1970-х гг. аналоговые и аналого-цифровые компьютеры постепенно выводились из обращения.
5) Программа Моделирования Непрерывной Системы (CSMP) для IBM компьютеров, язык SIMSCRIPT и множество других открыли новую эру и позволили пользователям решать системы дифференциальных уравнений с легкостью и точностью.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1) Most users realized they faced the end of an era, brought ____ by the ever-increasing speed, power, and memory capacity ____ digital computers.
2) The paradigm shift occurred _____ the advent _____ digital computer programs and special programming languages.
3) Analog and hybrid computers were generally phased _____ during the late 1970s.
4) One advance that made this possible was the development _____ integration algorithms that delivered accurate numerical solutions.
5) Lord Kelvin’s "feedback" method _____ successive numerical integrations, pioneered in 1876, is now in general use _____ digital computers but with little recognition given to its deep significance.
6) Make sentences using these expressions:
Phase out, bring on, capacity of, advent of, method of.
Unit 8.
1) Read the text.
APPLE COMPUTER, INC. Apple's Beginnings
Twenty years after it was founded, Apple is no longer the major power it once was in personal computing. Apple was the first mainstream vendor of personal computers and is still an important player, setting the pace for ease of use and graphical interfaces, but Apple has become a niche player. The company was born out of the desire of two spirited innovators, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, who wanted to bring computing power to ordinary people.
With the microprocessor, the semiconductor industry had provided the compact, inexpensive electronic brain needed to build a personal-sized computer. But it was individual computer enthusiasts, not the established mainframe and minicomputer companies which took the next steps. Fascinated with the computers they designed and programmed by day, many young engineers longed to have their own computers on which to work and play at night. They avidly read the handful of available hobbyist magazines, formed clubs, and swapped ideas.
Stephen G. Wozniak was a regular attendee of the Homebrew Computer Club that began meeting in 1975 in Menio Park, CA, at the northern edge of what was already called Silicon Valley. Wozniak had become enthralled with computers in high school and had dropped out of the engineering program at the University of California, Berkeley, to work for Hewlett-Packard, a manufacturer of calculators and minicomputers. It was at a Homebrew meeting that Wozniak heard about the first personal computers that were being offered as mail-order kits.
By mid-1976, Wozniak, 26, had written a Basic programming language interpreter for a new microprocessor from MOS Technology, the 6502, and designed a computer to run it. Wozniak proudly passed out photocopies of his design to Homebrew friends and helped them build their own machines from the plans.
Steven P. Jobs, age 21 in 1976, shared Wozniak's passion for computers. The two had collaborated on several electronics projects, including creating the video game Breakout for Atari, Inc., where Jobs worked. Convinced of the marketability of Wozniak's design, Jobs persuaded his friend to sell the Apple I kits to other hobbyists.
They sold Jobs's Volkswagen van and Wozniak's programmable calculator to raise enough money to get started. Jobs then landed an order for 50 Apple I computers from one of the first computer retail stores in the country, and, on the strength of that order, the two young men secured credit at an electronic parts house. In the garage of Jobs's parents' home in Cupertino, CA, Apple Computer went into business.
"I had wanted a computer my whole life—that was the big thing in my life," Wozniak remembers. "All of a sudden I realized that microprocessors were cheap enough to let me build one myself. Steve [Jobs] went a little further. Steve saw it as a product that you could actually deliver and sell, and someone else could use."
Like all early personal computers, the Apple I was designed for experts who could put it together and write their own programs. But Jobs had a vision for Apple Computer that went far beyond the hobbyist market. He sought advice on realizing his goals from successful industry figures, such as Nolan Bushnell, founder of Atari; Don Valentine, a venture capitalist; Regis McKenna, who owned a rising Silicon Valley advertising and public relations agency; and A. C. "Mike" Markkula, who, at age 33, had retired from a lucrative marketing career at Intel.
Wozniak began designing a second computer that would be technically far superior to the Apple I, incorporating a keyboard, power supply, and the ability to generate color graphics, and to use the Basic programming language. Convinced that this product—the Apple II—would spark demand for personal computers beyond the hobbyist market, Mike Markkula wrote a business plan for the young company and then invested in it. He officially joined Apple when it incorporated in January 1977, and has since served in various executive positions, including president. Apple blossorned during that first year. It introduced the Apple II to rave reviews at the first West Coast Computer Faire. Markkula signed up dealers across the country to sell the Apple II. Regis McKenna's agency helped establish an immediate presence for Apple with an eye-catching rainbow logo, ads placed in national consumer publications, and a public relations campaign that leveraged Apple's "American dream" beginnings. An infusion of $3 million in venture capital gave Apple an enormous advantage over many of its struggling competitors. Apple finished its first fiscal year with $774,000 in sales and a $42,000 profit.
2) Study the word combinations:
mainstream vendor – господствующий, лидирующий продавец
the pace for ease - темп для непринужденности
spirited innovators – энергичные, талантливые новаторы
the semiconductor industry - промышленность полупроводников
mainframe - универсальная ЭВМ, мэйнфрэйм
avidly – страстно
hobbyist magazines – любительские журналы
swap ideas - обмениваться идеями
attendee – посетитель
become enthralled with – приходить в восторг от
dropped out – покинувший
mail-order kits - комплекты заказа по почте
collaborated on - сотрудничавший в
convinced of - убежденный в
marketability - конкурентоспособность
van - фургон
a venture capitalist - капиталист предприятия, вкладчик капитала в рискованные предприятия
lucrative marketing - прибыльный маркетинг
incorporating – включающий
spark demand – возросший спрос
blossomed – расцветен
to rave reviews - взбудоражить обзоры
presence for - присутствие для
an eye-catching rainbow logo –логотип в виде привлекательной эмблемы радуги
campaign that leveraged - кампания, которая усиливала
infusion of – вливание
an enormous advantage - огромное преимущество
struggling competitors - борющиеся конкуренты
3) Translate the text and answer the questions.
1) What do you know about Apple computers?
2) How was the Apple Company born?
3) Who is Steve Wozniak?
4) Who was a regular attendee of the Homebrew Computer Club?
5) Can you tell us anything about Hewlett-Packard?
6) What did Wozniak have written by mid-1976?
7) How old was Steven P. Job when he shared Wozniak’s passion for comps?
8) What did they do in order to raise enough money to get starter?
9) Where did Apple Computer go into business?
10) Who was Apple I designed for?
11) Who did write a business plan for the young company?
12) When did Mike Marcella officially join Apple?
13) What did Marcella do in order to sell the Apple II?
14) How much dollars did Apple finish it’s first fiscal year with?
4) Translate the sentences from the text.
1) Apple было первым господствующим продавцом персональных компьютеров и - все еще важный игрок, устанавливающий темп для простоты использования и графических интерфейсов, но Apple стало игроком ниши.
2) Очарованные компьютерами, которые они проектировали и программировали днем, много молодых инженеров стремились иметь свои собственные компьютеры, чтобы работать и играть на них ночью.
3) Wozniak гордо раздавал фотокопии своего проекта Доморощенным друзьям и помог им строить их собственные машины из планов.
4) Как и все ранние персональные компьютеры, Apple I был разработан для экспертов, которые могли соединить их вместе и написать собственные программы.
5) С микропроцессором, промышленность полупроводников обеспечила компактный, недорогой электронный мозг, который был необходим для построения компьютера персонального размера.
6) Они страстно читали горстку доступных любительских журналов, формировали клубы и обменивались идеями.
7) Именно на встрече Доморощенных Уозниак услышал о первых персональных компьютерах, которые предлагались как комплекты заказа по почте.
5) Complete the sentences using prepositions from the text.
1. The company was born _____ the desire of two spirited innovators, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, who wanted to bring computing power _____ ordinary people.
2. Wozniak had become enthralled _____ computers in high school and had dropped _____ of the engineering program at the University of California.
3. Steven P. Jobs, age 21 in 1976, shared Wozniak's passion _____ computers.
4. Convinced of the marketability ____ Wozniak's design, Jobs persuaded his friend to sell the Apple I kits ____ other hobbyists.
5. Jobs then landed an order _____ 50 Apple I computers from one of the first computer retail stores in the country.
6. Jobs had a vision ____ Apple Computer that went far beyond _____ the hobbyist market.
7. He officially joined ____ Apple when it incorporated in January 1977, and has since served _____ various executive positions, including president.
8. Marcella signed _____ dealers across the country to sell the Apple II.
9. The two had collaborated _____ several electronics projects, including creating the video game Breakout for Atari, Inc., where Jobs worked.
6) Make sentences using these expressions: